Psalms – The Sacred Book Attributed to Prophet David

(Cite: Hamdani, Mufti Shah Rafi Uddin & Khan, Dr. (Mufti) Imran. (2018), Psalms, Encyclopedia of Muhammad , Seerat Research Center, Karachi, Pakistan, Vol. 1, Pg. 351-363.)

Allah sent David for the guidance of the people of Israel and blessed them the gift of Psalms (Arabic: زبور) – the revealed Book. David was among the selected prophets of Allah. Allah bestowed him a beautiful voice. When he recited Psalms, even the birds and the animals were trance and sung by his side. ¹ His mellifluous voice would appeal the flying birds to pause. The mountains and the valleys, all would begin to praise the greatness of Allah.

The biblical David who was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah, reigning in C. 1010–970 BCE, is also venerated in Islam as a prophet and messenger of God. He was a righteous, divinely anointed sovereign of the ancient United Kingdom of Israel, which itself is revered in Islam. ²

Samuel makes David the youngest of the eight sons of Jesse of Bethlehem. David’s mother is not cited in any Book of the Bible, but the Talmud identifies her as Nitzevet, daughter of Adael. When the story was retold in 1 Chronicles (4th century BCE), he was made the youngest of seven sons and given two sisters, Zeruiah and Abigail. The Book of Ruth (possibly also 4th century BCE) traces his lineage back to Ruth the Moabite.

David is one of the few prophets of Allah who received Kingship as well. While other prophets preached during the reign of kings, David , in his time, was the king himself. Therefore, he met an enormous task, making sure that the masses of Israel were not merely held in check spiritually, but that the country itself remained solid as well. All revered his position as both leader and prophet as one of extremely high rank. The figure of David together with that of his prophetic son, Solomon, is iconic of people who ruled justly over their land.

Allah frequently mentions David's high rank as a prophet and messenger in the Holy Quran. He is frequently mentioned alongside other prophets, showing that how great he was.

David Received Revelation And Guidance

David's narrative in the Holy Quran in many aspects parallel to what is presented in the Bible. David is included in the lists of those who received revelation as the Holy Quran states:

إِنَّا أَوْحَيْنَا إِلَيْكَ كَمَا أَوْحَيْنَا إِلَى نُوحٍ وَالنَّبِيِّينَ مِنْ بَعْدِهِ وَأَوْحَيْنَا إِلَى إِبْرَاهِيمَ وَإِسْمَاعِيلَ وَإِسْحَاقَ وَيَعْقُوبَ وَالْأَسْبَاطِ وَعِيسَى وَأَيُّوبَ وَيُونُسَ وَهَارُونَ وَسُلَيْمَانَ وَآتَيْنَا دَاوُودَ زَبُورًا 163³

Indeed We sent a divine revelation to you (Prophet Mohammed – peace and blessing be upon him) as We did send divine revelations to Nooh and the Prophets after him; and We sent divine revelations to Ibrahim and Ismael and Ishaq and Yaqub and their offspring, and Eisa (Jesus) and Ayyub and Yunus and Haroon and Sulaiman, and We bestowed the Zaboor (the Holy Book) upon Dawud

Likewise, it is said that:

وَوَهَبْنَا لَهُ إِسْحَاقَ وَيَعْقُوبَ كُلًّا هَدَيْنَا وَنُوحًا هَدَيْنَا مِنْ قَبْلُ وَمِنْ ذُرِّيَّتِهِ دَاوُودَ وَسُلَيْمَانَ وَأَيُّوبَ وَيُوسُفَ وَمُوسَى وَهَارُونَ وَكَذَلِكَ نَجْزِي الْمُحْسِنِينَ 84⁴

And We bestowed upon him Ishaq (Isaac) and Yaqub (Jacob); We guided all of them; and We guided Nooh before them and of his descendants, Dawud and Sulaiman and Ayyub and Yusuf and Moosa and Haroon; and this is the way We reward the virtuous.

In both lists, David appears next to that of his son Solomon . Elsewhere, the Holy Quran explains that God granted to both of them the gifts of "sound judgment" (Hukm; 21:79) and "knowledge". As the Holy Quran states:

فَفَهَّمْنَاهَا سُلَيْمَانَ وَكُلًّا آتَيْنَا حُكْمًا وَعِلْمًا وَسَخَّرْنَا مَعَ دَاوُودَ الْجِبَالَ يُسَبِّحْنَ وَالطَّيْرَ وَكُنَّا فَاعِلِينَ 79⁵

And We explained the case to Sulaiman; and to both, We gave the kingdom and knowledge, and subjected the hills to proclaim the Purity along with Dawud, and (also subjected) the birds; and these were Our works.

وَلَقَدْ آتَيْنَا دَاوُودَ وَسُلَيْمَانَ عِلْمًا وَقَالَا الْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ الَّذِي فَضَّلَنَا عَلَى كَثِيرٍ مِنْ عِبَادِهِ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ 15⁶

And We indeed bestowed great knowledge to Dawud and Sulaiman; and they both said, “All praise is to Allah, Who bestowed us superiority over many of His believing bondmen.”

David Received Psalms

The Holy Quran also ascribes to merits that distinguish him from Solomon : David killed Goliath ⁷ and received a divine revelation named the Psalms:

وَرَبُّكَ أَعْلَمُ بِمَنْ فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَلَقَدْ فَضَّلْنَا بَعْضَ النَّبِيِّينَ عَلَى بَعْضٍ وَآتَيْنَا دَاوُودَ زَبُورًا 55⁸

And your Lord knows well all those who are in the heavens and the earth, and indeed among the Prophets, We gave excellence to some above others, and We gave the Zaboor to Dawud.

The Holy Quran uses the definite form al-Zabur, presumably a reference to the Psalms or the Psalter. The mountains and the birds praised God along with David (21: 79; in 34: 10 God commands them to do so; cf. Psalm 148: 7–10).

David Appointed As A Vicegerent

Allah made the David a "vicegerent":

يَادَاوُودُ إِنَّا جَعَلْنَاكَ خَلِيفَةً فِي الْأَرْضِ فَاحْكُمْ بَيْنَ النَّاسِ بِالْحَقِّ وَلَا تَتَّبِعِ الْهَوَى فَيُضِلَّكَ عَنْ سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ إِنَّ الَّذِينَ يَضِلُّونَ عَنْ سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ لَهُمْ عَذَابٌ شَدِيدٌ بِمَا نَسُوا يَوْمَ الْحِسَابِ 26⁹

“O Dawud! We have indeed appointed you as a Viceroy in the earth, therefore judge between mankind with the truth, and do not follow desire for it will lead you astray from Allah’s path; indeed for those who stray away from Allah’s path is a severe punishment, because they forgot the Day of Reckoning.”

A vicegerent is a title that the Holy Quran otherwise gives only to Adam (2: 30). This title suggests that, to the Holy Quran, David was something more than a messenger: he was a divinely guided leader who established God’s rule on earth. This role is also suggested by 2: 251: "God gave him authority (mulk) and wisdom (ḥikma) and taught him what He willed. If God did not drive back some people by others, the earth would become corrupt." ¹⁰

Iron Became Flexible For David

Among the things taught to David was the ability to make armour. As the Holy Quran states:

وَعَلَّمْنَاهُ صَنْعَةَ لَبُوسٍ لَكُمْ لِتُحْصِنَكُمْ مِنْ بَأْسِكُمْ فَهَلْ أَنْتُمْ شَاكِرُونَ 21¹¹

And We taught him to make a garment for you, to protect you from your hurt; so will you be thankful?

God made the iron soft for him (and commanded him): 'Make a garment for you, to protect you from your hurt', this shows that Allah had made Prophet David, an expert in the use of iron, and had especially taught him the art of an armorer for defense purposes. This fact is confirmed by archaeological and historical researches, for according to these the iron age in the world started between 1200 and 1000 B.C. and this was precisely the period of David. ¹²

وَلَقَدْ آتَيْنَا دَاوُودَ مِنَّا فَضْلًا يَاجِبَالُ أَوِّبِي مَعَهُ وَالطَّيْرَ وَأَلَنَّا لَهُ الْحَدِيدَ 10 أَنِ اعْمَلْ سَابِغَاتٍ وَقَدِّرْ فِي السَّرْدِ وَاعْمَلُوا صَالِحًا إِنِّي بِمَا تَعْمَلُونَ بَصِيرٌ 11¹³

And indeed We gave Dawud the utmost excellence from Us; “O the hills and birds, repent towards Allah along with him”; and We made iron soft for him. Make large coats of armour and keep proper measure while making, and all of you perform good deeds; I indeed see your deeds.

This is an allusion to the countless favors with which Allah had blessed David. He was an ordinary young man of the tribe of Judah, living at Bethlehem. In a campaign against the Philistines he slew the giant Goliath, the great enemy of Israel, and suddenly grew in esteem of the Israelites. With this event began his rise to prominence; so much so that after the death of Saul he was first elected king of Judah in Hebron, and then a few years later he was made king over all the tribes of Israel. He took Jerusalem and made it the capital of the kingdom of Israel. It was under his leadership that for the first time in history a God-worshipping kingdom was established, whose boundaries extended from the Gulf of Aqabah to the western banks of the River Euphrates. In addition to these favors, he was further graced with Divine bounties in the form of knowledge and wisdom, and the qualities of justice and mercy and devotion to the truth. ¹⁴

It is significant that the Quranic reference to David's "wisdom" was sometimes explained by the classical exegetes as the gift of prophecy.

David And Jesus

The Holy Quran also connects David and Jesus , by insisting that both cursed those Israelites who did not believe:

لُعِنَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا مِنْ بَنِي إِسْرَائِيلَ عَلَى لِسَانِ دَاوُودَ وَعِيسَى ابْنِ مَرْيَمَ ذَلِكَ بِمَا عَصَوْا وَكَانُوا يَعْتَدُونَ 78¹⁵

Those among the Descendants of Israel who turned disbelievers were cursed by the tongue of Dawud, and of Eisa the son of Maryam; it was because of their disobedience and their rebellion. They did not restrain one another from the evil they used to do; undoubtedly they used to commit extremely evil deeds.

This verse mentions the sad end of those people from the Children of Israel who were involved in the error of excess and deficiency (being hostile to prophets, killing them, or associating them with the attributes of God). On them fell the curse of Allah Almighty. Firstly, it came through the tongue of David and Jesus as a result of which they were transformed into pigs. Then, this curse fell upon them through the tongue of Jesus the temporal effect of which was that they were transformed into monkeys, ¹⁶

Moreover, according to the Holy Quran, David was given the power to discern between the truth and falsehood when dispensing justice. Furthermore, there was an allusion to the test David was put through, wherein he prayed, repented and God accepted his prayer. As the Holy Quran states:

قَالَ لَقَدْ ظَلَمَكَ بِسُؤَالِ نَعْجَتِكَ إِلَى نِعَاجِهِ وَإِنَّ كَثِيرًا مِنَ الْخُلَطَاءِ لَيَبْغِي بَعْضُهُمْ عَلَى بَعْضٍ إِلَّا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا وَعَمِلُوا الصَّالِحَاتِ وَقَلِيلٌ مَا هُمْ وَظَنَّ دَاوُودُ أَنَّمَا فَتَنَّاهُ فَاسْتَغْفَرَ رَبَّهُ وَخَرَّ رَاكِعًا وَأَنَابَ 24فَغَفَرْنَا لَهُ ذَلِكَ وَإِنَّ لَهُ عِنْدَنَا لَزُلْفَى وَحُسْنَ مَآبٍ 25¹⁷

Said Dawud, “He is indeed being unjust to you in that he demands to add your ewe to his ewes; and indeed most partners wrong one another, except those who believe and do good deeds – and they are very few!” Thereupon Dawud realised that We had tested him, so he sought forgiveness from his Lord, and fell prostrate and inclined (towards his Lord). We, therefore, forgave him this; and indeed for him in Our presence are, surely, proximity and an excellent abode.

This shows that the David made a mistake, and it was an error which bore some resemblance with the case of the ewes. Therefore, when he gave a decision on it, he at once realized that he was being put to the test. But the nature of the error was not such as could not be forgiven, or if forgiven, it would have deposed him from his high rank Allah Himself says: When he fell down prostrate and repented, he was not only forgiven but his high rank in the world and the Hereafter also remained unaffected. ¹⁸

The 38th chapter of the Holy Quran, Suad (ص), is also called "The Chapter of David" Exegetes explain that since David prostrated when he prayed to Almighty Allah for mercifulness, Prophet Muhammad was also consecrated to perform a prostration when reading this chapter in remembrance of David .

فَقَالَ: سَأَلْتُ ابْنَ عَبَّاسٍ: مِنْ أَيْنَ سَجَدْتَ؟ فَقَالَ: أَوَمَا تَقْرَأُ: "وَمِنْ ذُرِّيَّتِهِ دَاوُدَ وَسُلَيْمَانَ". "أُولَئِكَ الَّذِينَ هَدَى اللَّهُ فَبِهُدَاهُمُ اقْتَدِهْ" (الأنعام: 90) فَكَانَ دَاوُدُ مِمَّنْ أُمِرَ نَبِيُّكُمْ صَلَّى اللهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ أَنْ يَقْتَدِيَ بِهِ، فَسَجَدَهَا دَاوُدُ عَلَيْهِ السَّلاَمُ، فَسَجَدَهَا رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ. ¹⁹

Narrated Mujahid: That he asked Ibn 'Abbas, "Is there a prostration in Surat-al-Sad?" (38: 24) Ibn Abbas said, "Yes," and then recited: "We gave...So follow their guidance." (6: 85,90) Then he said, "He (David ) is one of them (i.e. those prophets)." Mujahid narrated: I asked Ibn 'Abbas (regarding the above Verse). He said, Your Prophet (Muhammad ) was one of those who were ordered to follow them.

David As A Ruler

David was a just and righteous ruler who brought peace and prosperity to his nation. He delivered Allah's message to the people through the precious gift of his melodious voice. When he recited the Psalms, it was as if the rest of creation chanted with him; people listened as if in a trance. The messages which were delivered by David are famous and well-remembered. These messages are known in the Bible as the Psalms or Songs of David . David divided his working day into four parts: to earn a living and to rest, to pray to his Lord, to listen to the complaints of his people, and to deliver his sermons. He also appointed deputies to listen to his subjects' complaints so that in his absence people's problems might not be neglected.

As a king, he did not live on the income of his kingdom. Being well-experienced in the craft of weapon-making, he made and sold weapons and lived on that income. ²⁰

The Death Of David

David worshipped Allah, glorified Him and sang His praise until he passed

away. According to traditions, David died suddenly and was mourned by thousands of people and four thousand priests. The weather was so hot that people suffered from the intensity of the sun. Solomon called the birds to protect David and the people from the sun, and the birds did so until he was laid to rest. This was the first sign of his all-around dominion to be witnessed by the masses. ²¹

The Psalms

The Book of Psalms commonly referred to simply as the Psalms or "the Psalms", is the first book of the Ketuvim ("Writings")²², the third section of the Hebrew Bible, and a book of the Christian Old Testament. The title is derived from the Greek translation, ψαλμοί psalmoi, meaning "instrumental music" and, by extension, "the words accompanying the music." ²³ The book is an anthology of individual psalms, with 150 fragments in the Jewish and Western Christian tradition and more in the Eastern Christian churches. Many of the psalms are linked to the name of King David , although some modern Bible scholars do not accept his authorship. ²⁴

Superscriptions And Attributions

Many psalms (116 of the 150) have individual superscriptions (titles), ranging from lengthy comments into a single word. Over a third appear to be musical directions, addressed to the "leader" or "choirmaster," including such statements as "with stringed instruments" and "according to lilies." Others appear to be references to types of musical composition, such as "A psalm" and "Song," or directions regarding the occasion for using the psalm ("On the dedication of the temple," "For the memorial offering," etc.). Many superscriptions carry the names of individuals, the most common (73 psalms) being of David , and thirteen of these relates explicitly to incidents in the king's life. ²⁵ Others named include Moses (1), Asaph (12), the Sons of Korah (11) and Solomon (2). A natural way of understanding these attributions is as a claim to authorship, but it could also mean "to David" or "for David" . ²⁶

Psalms are usually identified by a sequence number, often preceded by the abbreviation "Ps." The numbering of the Psalms differs—mostly by one digit, between the Hebrew (Masoretic) and Greek (Septuagint) manuscripts. Protestant translations (Lutheran, Anglican, Calvinist) use the Hebrew numbering, but other Christian traditions vary:

• Catholic official liturgical texts follow the Greek numbering.
• Catholic modern translations often use the Hebrew numbering (noting the Greek number).
• Eastern Orthodox translations use the Greek numbering (noting the Hebrew number). ²⁷

Additional Psalms

The Septuagint Bible, present in Eastern Orthodox churches, includes a Psalm 151; a Hebrew version of this was found in the Psalms Scroll of the Dead Sea Scrolls. ²⁸ Some versions of the Peshitta (the Bible used in Syriac churches in the Middle East) include Psalms 152–155. There are also the Psalms of Solomon, which are a further 18 Psalms of Jewish origin, likely and originally written in Hebrew, but surviving only in Greek and Syriac translation. These and other indications suggest that the contemporary Western Christian and Jewish collection of 150 psalms were selected from a wider set.

David And The Psalms

Seventy-three of the 150 Psalms in the Hebrew Bible are attributed to David . One of the Dead Sea Scrolls (11QPsa) attribute 3600 tehilim (songs of praise) plus other compositions to him. Nevertheless, Roland E. Murphy holds that there is no hard evidence for the Davidic authorship of any of them. ²⁹ "Davidic authorship is not accepted as historical fact by modern scholars," note Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler in the Jewish Study Bible, who see this type of ascription rather as ancients linking them to well-known biblical figures as a means of canonization. Others concede that "David's reputation as a musician makes it reasonable to associate him with the Psalms". Whereas, Jewish tradition indicates that he is the author, and note that the information we have about David suggests he was a prolific writer and musician who set many of his writings to music and called them Psalms. ³⁰

Psalms In Islam

According to Islam, Allah had revealed psalms to David and it was not written or sung by him As the Holy Quran states:

وَرَبُّكَ أَعْلَمُ بِمَنْ فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَلَقَدْ فَضَّلْنَا بَعْضَ النَّبِيِّينَ عَلَى بَعْضٍ وَآتَيْنَا دَاوُودَ زَبُورًا 55³¹

And your Lord knows well all those who are in the heavens and the earth, and indeed among the Prophets, We gave excellence to some above others, and We gave the Zaboor (Psalms) to Dawud.

The present Psalms is the amended one as the mentioned details are proof of it, but still, we have a few verses in it which show the prophecies about the arrival of Prophet Muhammad .

• ¹  Holy Quran, Saba (The Tribe of Saba) 34: 10-11
• ²  Jane Dammen McAuliffe (Editor) (2001), Isaac Hasson (Author of the Article), “David”, in Encyclopedia of the Quran, Brill, Boston, USA, Pg. 496.
• ³  Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 163
• ⁴  Holy Quran, Al-Anaam (The Cattle) 6: 84
• ⁵  Holy Quran, Al-Anbiya (The Prophets) 21: 79
• ⁶  Holy Quran, Al-Naml 27: 15
• ⁷  فَهَزَمُوهُمْ بِإِذْنِ اللَّهِ وَقَتَلَ دَاوُودُ جَالُوتَ وَآتَاهُ اللَّهُ الْمُلْكَ وَالْحِكْمَةَ وَعَلَّمَهُ مِمَّا يَشَاءُ وَلَوْلَا دَفْعُ اللَّهِ النَّاسَ بَعْضَهُمْ بِبَعْضٍ لَفَسَدَتِ الْأَرْضُ وَلَكِنَّ اللَّهَ ذُو فَضْلٍ عَلَى الْعَالَمِينَ﴿۲۵۱﴾
  So they routed them by the command of Allah; and Dawud (David) slew Jalut, and Allah gave him the kingdom and wisdom, and taught him all whatever He willed; and if Allah does not ward off some men by others, the earth will be destroyed, but Allah is Most Munificent towards the entire creation.
  (Holy Quran Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2:251)
• ⁸  Holy Quran, Bani Israil (The Descendants of Israel) 17: 55
• ⁹  Holy Quran, Suad ( ص) (Arabic Alphabet) 38: 26
• ¹⁰  Jane Dammen McAuliffe (Editor) (2001), Isaac Hasson (Author of the Article), “David”, in Encyclopedia of the Quran, Brill, Boston, USA, Pg. 496.
• ¹¹  Holy Quran, Al-Anbia (The Prophets) 21: 80
• ¹²  Towards the Understanding of the Quran: http://www.islamicstudies.info/tafheem.php?sura=21&verse=76&to=93: Retrieved: 04-02-18
• ¹³  Holy Quran, Saba (The Tribe of Saba) 34: 10-11
• ¹⁴  Towards Understanding the Quran: http://www.islamicstudies.info/tafheem.php?sura=34&verse=1&to=11
• ¹⁵  Holy Quran, Maidah (The Table Spread of Food) 5: 78
• ¹⁶  Mufti Muhammad Shafi (n.d), Maa'rif ul Quran (Translated by Muhammad Shammim), Maktaba Darul Uloom, Karachi, Pakistan, Vol. 3 Pg. 233.
• ¹⁷  Holy Quran, Suad (ص) (Arabic Alphabet) 38: 24-25
• ¹⁸  18 Towards Understanding the Quran: http://www.islamicstudies.info/tafheem.php?sura=38&verse=15 &to=26
• ¹⁹  Abu Abdullah Muhammad Bin Ismail Al-Bukhari, Sahih Bukhari, Kitab-ul-Tafseer, Hadith: 4807, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudia, Pg. 846.
• ²⁰  Abul Fida Ismail Ibne Kathir, Story of The Prophets (Translated by Muhammad Mustapha) Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudia, Pg. 148.
• ²¹  Abul Fida Ismail Ibne Kathir, Story of The Prophets (Translated by Muhammad Mustapha) Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudia, Pg. 149.
• ²²  Ketuvim is the third and final section of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), after Torah (instruction) and Nevi'im (prophets). In English translations of the Hebrew Bible, this section is usually entitled "Writings". The first wave of synergism produced extraordinary results in terms of contemporary standards of literacy and belles’ letters. The communal response of the first generation of Jews after the Exile had set the tone for centuries to come. Out of exile and diaspora had come at least two segments of the Hebrew Bible as we know it, Torah and Prophets, which were redacted no later than the end of the Persian period (circa 400 BCE); the third section of the Bible (the "Hagiographa") was available by this time as well. What was to become normative after 70 C.E. in Judaism had mostly been achieved and promulgated a half millennium before. (Eric M. Meyers (June, 1992), The Challenge of Hellenism for Early Judaism and Christianity, The American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 2, Vol. 55, Pg. 84–91.)
• ²³  Roland E. Murphy (1993), "Psalms", In Michael D. Coogan, Bruce Metzger (Editors) (1993), The Oxford Companion to the Bible, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K, Pg. 626.
• ²⁴  Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (2004), "Psalms", In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Fishbane, Michael A., The Jewish Study Bible, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K.
• ²⁵  Hayes, John H. (1998), "The Songs of Israel", In McKenzie, Steven L.; Graham, Matt Patrick, The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues, Westminster John Knox Press, Kentucky, USA, Pg. 153-154.
• ²⁶  James D. Nogalski (Author) (edited by Festschrift Marvin E. Tate) (2000), "From Psalm to Psalms to Psalter, " in An Introduction to Wisdom Literature and the Psalms, Mercer University Press, Macon, Georgia, Pg. 38.
• ²⁷ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psalms#Psalms_in_Islam: Retrieved: 01-02-2017
• ²⁸  The most well-known texts among the Dead Sea Scrolls are the ancient religious writings found in eleven caves near the site of Qumran. Discoveries from additional sites yielded mostly documents and letters, especially papyri that had been hidden in caves by refugees from wars. While some of these writings survived as nearly intact scrolls, most of the archive consists of thousands of parchment and papyrus fragments.
  The Qumran Caves Scrolls contain significant religious literature. They consist of two types: “biblical” manuscripts—books found in today’s Hebrew Bible, and “non-biblical” manuscripts—other religious writings circulating during the Second Temple era, often related to the texts now in the Hebrew Bible. Of this second category, some are considered “sectarian” in nature, since they appear to describe the religious beliefs and practices of a specific religious community. .
  Scroll dates range from the third century BCE (mid–Second Temple period) to the first century of the Common Era, before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. While Hebrew is the most frequently used language in the Scrolls, about 15% were written in Aramaic and several in Greek. The Scrolls’ materials are made up mainly of parchment, although some are papyrus, and the text of one Scroll is engraved on copper. .
  Biblical Manuscripts: About 230 manuscripts are referred to as “biblical Scrolls”. These are copies of works that are now part of the Hebrew Bible. They already held a special status in the Second Temple period, and were considered to be vessels of divine communication. Evidence suggests that the Scrolls' contemporary communities did not have a unified conception of an authoritative collection of scriptural works. The idea of a closed biblical “canon” only emerged later in the history of these sacred writings. .
  Among the Scrolls are partial or complete copies of every book in the Hebrew Bible (except the book of Esther). About a dozen copies of some of these holy books were written in ancient paleo-Hebrew (the script of the First Temple era, not the standard script of the time). Many biblical manuscripts closely resemble the Masoretic Text, the accepted text of the Hebrew Bible from the second half of the first millennium CE until today. This similarity is quite remarkable, considering that the Qumran Scrolls are over a thousand years older than previously identified biblical manuscripts. .
  Strikingly, some biblical manuscripts feature differences from the standard Masoretic biblical language and spelling. Additions and deletions in certain texts imply that the writers felt free to modify texts they were copying. .
  Non-Biblical Manuscripts: The Qumran Caves Scrolls preserve a large range of Jewish religious writings from the Second Temple period, including parabiblical texts, exegetical texts, hymns and prayers, wisdom texts, apocalyptic texts, calendrical texts, and others. Some of the works discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls were known previously, having been preserved in translation since Second Temple times. The term "Pseudepigrapha" was used for these works, such as the book of Jubilees which was known in Ethiopic and Greek versions before being found in Hebrew in the Qumran caves. Many other non-biblical works were previously unknown. .
  A primary common factor among the selection of compositions found in the Qumran caves is the fundamental importance of religion. .
  Scholars agree that some of this literature was valued by large segments of the Jewish population, while other works reflect the beliefs of specific sub-groups. There is disagreement, however, about many other aspects of these texts, including which communities are represented and how those communities may have interacted with one another. .
  Many of the 'sectarian' scrolls found in the Qumran caves emphasize spiritual purity and ritual purification through immersion in a ritual bath or 'mikveh' like the one shown here from Khirbet Qumran. .
  Sectarian Manuscripts: A quarter of these non-biblical manuscripts are labeled “sectarian, ” and are composed of material that seems to reflect the life and philosophy of a specific community. These core texts consist of eschatological biblical commentaries, apocalyptic and liturgical works, and regulations that govern community life. In the early days of Scrolls research, scholars attributed all of the Qumran scrolls to the Essene community, one of three main Jewish sects described in ancient sources. In recent years, however, this consensus has been challenged and modified, though many scholars still maintain a link between the Essenes and the Dead Sea Scrolls. .
  Scrolls from Additional Sites: Dead Sea Scrolls discovered outside of the Qumran caves range from as early as the First Temple period (8th century BCE) to as late as the 11th century CE. Collections include the fourth-century BCE Samaritan Aramaic papyri from Wadi Daliyeh and the Arabic manuscripts from Khirbet Mird (7th–8th Centuries CE). Most of the manuscripts are Jewish texts that were written during the Roman era. Among these, the finds from Masada and the Hebrew, Aramaic, Nabatean, and Greek documents from the Bar Kokhba Revolt are especially valued by scholars. .
  Silver tetradrachm from the Te'omim Cave, 134-135 CE Obv.: Façade of the Jerusalem Temple. Inscription: "Shim'on" Rev.: Bundle of Lulav and Etrog. Inscription: "For the Freedom of Jerusalem".
  The Bar Kokhba Refuge Caves: The "Bar Kokhba refuge caves" preserved numerous documents including financial, military, legal, administrative, and personal records, as well as some religious texts including biblical Scrolls. Brought to the caves by refugees seeking haven from the turmoil of the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-135 CE.), they contain clues to the economic and personal hardships endured by the refugees. Texts from the caves include letters to and from the leader of the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Since many of the documents are dated, they are of great significance for the archaeology of the Roman and Talmudic periods. .
  The biblical Scrolls from the refuge caves are significant for textual criticism because they are equivalent to the Masoretic (Hebrew Bible) Text, which suggests that the biblical text was stabilized by the second-century CE. The religious texts discovered here also include tefillin, a mezuzah, a literary text fragment referring to a prayer for Zion, and a well-preserved Scroll of the Twelve Minor Prophets in Greek. ( http://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/learn-about-the-scrolls/introduction: Retrieved: 01-02-2017) .
  Dr. Mehmood Ahmed Ghazi says that it is the literature which proofs the claim of Quran that:
  .وَقَالَتِ الْيَهُودُ عُزَيْرٌ ابْنُ اللَّهِ وَقَالَتِ النَّصَارَى الْمَسِيحُ ابْنُ اللَّهِ ذَٰلِكَ قَوْلُهُم بِأَفْوَاهِهِمْ يُضَاهِئُونَ قَوْلَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا مِن قَبْلُ قَاتَلَهُمُ اللَّهُ أَنَّىٰ يُؤْفَكُونَ
  Translation: And the Jews said, “Uzair is the son of Allah”, and the Christians said “The Messiah is the son of Allah”; they utter this from their own mouths; they speak like the former disbelievers; may Allah kill them; where are they reverting!.
  (Holy Quran Al Taubah (The Repentance) 9: 30).
  Because Jews used to say that we never called Uzair علیہلسلم as a son of Allah but in this literature there is a proof that there was a sect in Jews who had this belief and so many books were found which condemned this belief. (Dr. Mehmood Ahmad Ghazi, Mohadirat-e-Seerat, Al-Faisal, Lahore, Pg. 276.)
• ²⁹  Murphy, Roland E. (1993), "Psalms", In Michael D. Coogan, Bruce Metzger (Editors) (1993), The Oxford Companion to the Bible, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K, Pg. 626.
• ³⁰  Mazar A., Archaeology and the Biblical Narrative: The Case of the United Monarchy (PDF).
• ³¹  Holy Quran, Bani Israil (The Descendants of Israel) 17: 55