(Reference: Dr. Imran Khan & Mufti. Shah Rafi Uddin Hamdani (2020), Seerat Encyclopedia of Muhammad ﷺ, Article: 49, Seerat Research Center Karachi, Pakistan, Vol. 2, Pg. 971-983.)

The civilization of Islam began in the arid peninsula of Arabia. The inhabitants of this peninsula had a nomadic lifestyle and spent their lives in search of water and life supporting resources. After arranging the necessary means of survival, the ancient Arabs had nothing to do. Hence, these people had a lot of leisure time at their disposal, which they passed under the open desert sky, free from any disciplined stream of thoughts. Under these circumstances and in such an environment, only two traits of character easily developed in the Arabs: the development of the art of poetry, and the tremendous effort to survive which required them to be ever ready for war. Constant mutual combats and victories led them naturally to self-praise and a growing discretion for exhibiting a sense of dignity.

The idleness and deep indulgence in poetic composition drove them to legitimate and illegitimate intimacy and drinking. While their bravery and boldness in the battle field, and the Arab culture made them firm in fulfilling their promises, to the extent that it was a matter of honor for them. Their other habits included gambling, archery, assemblies for the recital of poetic verses, assertions of dignity, and competition. In short, Arabia and its climate conditioned the Arab character.

Over a period of time, prophets were also sent towards the people of Arabs which included Hud , Shoaib and Saleh . ¹ However, the Arabs were extremely disrespectful and antagonistic towards them like the descendants of Israel. The ancient Arabs could not attain any benefit from the teachings of previous prophets due to their rebellious attitude and undisciplined thinking. Furthermore, the misbehavior of the Arabs resulted in their destruction.

The Arabian Peninsula was not governed by any single king, its territory was divided into smaller tribal divisions which were not much better than anarchy. This anarchy and unbridled freedom gave rise to untold immorality, misbehavior and disrespectful rudeness which permeated the whole social life of the Arabs and this human depravity continued until the light of Islam rose from the dark horizon of this country.

Most of the Arabs were nomads, and very few had settled permanently in townships and populated areas. The Arabs were very fond of keeping an exact genealogy of their ancestors preserved by memory. They would mention the names and deeds of their forefathers with pride and thus animate zeal and the valor of their people during fighting.

Perhaps it was the impact of the climatic conditions of the country or their fondness for genealogy that caused the Arabs to have a very strong memory. It was something simple for them to accurately remember odes of tribute that were several hundred verses long, after hearing them only once. Their art of poetry and command of language led the Arabs to call the non-Arabs as 'Ajam (literally: mute).

They also had extremely harsh traditions. If an individual of one clan was killed by another, then the clan belonging to the dead person would not rest until they took revenge since not retaliating was considered a matter of shame. Normally, the revenge was not only limited to the criminal only but extended to other members of the tribe. This instigated the other tribe towards revenge and eventually resulted into years of and even decades of animosity.

The Kabah was a matter of great importance for the Arabs and it was due to its presence that the pagans of Makkah enjoyed a special status all over Arabia. Their trade caravans were not attacked while they travelled ² and no one dared to attack Makkah since it was considered a sacred city.

Ancient People

Since very early times, the progeny of Shem, the son of Noah inhabited Arabia. As regards to designating eras, the historians have put the inhabitants of Arabia into three categories namely: Arab Ba'idah, Arab Mustaʼribah and Arab 'Aribah. Some of them have held both Aribah and Mustaribah as the same and designated them in two categories only Arab Ba'idah and Arab Baqiyah. Arab Ba'idah refers to only those peoples who had inhabited Arabia from the earliest age and they have all perished without leaving any trace behind. Arab Baqiyah means those people who are still found in Arabia. They were also form two categories namely: 'Aribah and Mustaribah. Other historians have designated the Arabs into four categories: Arab Ba'idah or Arab 'Aribah, Arab Mustaʻribah, Arab Tabi'ah, and Arab Musta’jimah. ³

Geography

Arabia, also known as the island of the Arabs as it is called by its own inhabitants, is a primary geological formation of southwest Asia. As early as the Jurassic epoch, the deep Indian ocean and the Persian Gulf cut it off from India and Persia, whose mountainous conformation is still retained in the coastal region of Oman. In the Tertiary period, Arabia was divided from North Africa by the irruption of the Red Sea, which elevated the western mountain chain of the Sarat, in which Jabal-un-Nabi Shu’ayb, west of the Yemenite capital of Sana’a in the south, rises to a height of more than 12,300 feet. Stretched out before this range lies the coastal plain of Tihamah, about 39 miles wide and its northern part together with the mountain country was called Hijaz. The Arabian Peninsula was bounded on the east by the Arabian Gulf, on the south by Arabian Sea, on the west by the Red Sea and on the north by Jordan and Iraq. The total area of the Arabian Peninsula was 1.25 million square miles of which 450,000 miles was pure desert. Its most famous desert was the Rub-ul-Khali which stretches over an area of 250,000 square miles and extends to the middle of Arabia. On the north of this vast desert is Al-Ahsa or Bahrain, and Oman lies on the south and east of Al-Rub-ul-Khali. ⁴

On the south of Al-Rub-ul-Khali are Hadramout and Mahra, which are situated on the coast of the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean. To south and west of Al-Rub-ul-Khali, is Sana'a which is the famous city of Yemen, situated on the coast of the Arabian Sea and the Red Sea. At the time of the advent of Islam, it was the center for Christians in Arabia. To the west of Al-Rub-ul-Khali, lay Asir and Najran, which on the coast of the Red Sea. To the north of Asir, the Red Sea touches small territory called Tihamah, which is considered as a part of Hijaz. On the north of Al-Rub-ul-Khali is Najd in the shape of a square, the east of which is Bahrain, to the west is Hijaz and on the north is the desert of Iraq and Syria. The name of the northeastern part of Najd was Yamamah. Hijaz was situated at the west of Najd and east of the Red Sea, it included the cities of Makkah and Al-Madinah and the harbors of Jeddah and Yanbu. Between Syria and the Hijaz lay a territory called Khaibar and Hijr. It is another territory bound by Syria, Hijaz and Najd. Inside Al-Rub-ul-Khali and between Hadramout and Yamamah is a famous desolate area called Al-Ahqaf, which was once the dwelling place of the people of ‘Ad. ⁵

Language

The Arabic of the Arabian Peninsula at the time of the birth of Prophet Muhammad is now known as the Classical Arabic or Al-Lughat-ul-Fus’ha. Classical Arabic which is represented by the earliest corpus of poetry from Arabia, ascribed to poets living in the 6th century A.D. and onwards. ⁶ It is the form of Arabic found in the Quran. ⁷

Classical Arabic is written with an alphabet ultimately derived from the Nabataean variety of the Aramaic script. The Classical Arabic script contains 28 graphemes originally representing the same number of consonantal phonemes. To this is added the indication of three basic vowel phonemes by diacritical marks. There is also a sign marking absence of vowels and lengthening/doubling of consonants. One of the consonantal signs, however, (the alif) does not have any consonantal value, which led to the introduction of a special diacritic sign for the phoneme originally written by alif. Certain suffixes for case and mood are marked by special diacritical signs and are thus not written in the consonantal orthography. All these diacritic signs are, however, sparingly used and are mostly found in editions of classical texts, mainly poetry, modern books for children and above all in the Holy Quran. The latter is, in fact, the prototype for the writing system because of its status as a divinely inspired text and since it is the earliest book where the Arabiyya is written. The Quran was originally written with consonants only but the diacritical signs (for vowels, etc.) were already introduced around the year 700 A.D. The Arabiyya/Classical Arabic, including Modern Standard Arabic, is basically written according to Quranic orthography (with some insignificant deviations). ⁸

Within the course of a century, the Arab conquests had spread to cover a vast area in Asia, Africa and southern Europe, and it was Islam that took Arabic to these new lands, carried by the Muslim armies and migrants to the Levant, the Fertile Crescent, Egypt, North Africa and Spain, and in the east to Persia and beyond. The Quran affirms its connection with Arabic but Muhammad is likewise informed that he has been sent to all people to give good news and warning, and Arabic was eventually to supersede such local languages as Aramaic, Greek, Coptic, Berber and Persian. Naturally this process took some time: Arabic was first used for religious, administrative and political purposes, and in high culture, but later spread to the population at large in the Middle East and North Africa, to become permanently the language of the majority.

It was also Islam, in great part, that provided impetus for the transformation of Arabic from a predominantly spoken language to a language of scholarship transmitted by the written word: the Quran was the first book to be written down in Arabic, and as can be seen in the early interest in grammar, phonetics, stylistics and other linguistic disciplines, all Arabic and Islamic scholarship was rooted in the drive to serve the Quran. Islam introduced a religious system with branches of religious knowledge, such as Quranic exegesis (tafsir), record of the prophetic traditions (ḥadiṯh), theology and Islamic law (fiqh), all of which also had implications for the use and development of the Arabic language. ⁹

Months of Peace

Arabs fixed one or several months of the year when they considered fighting as unlawful. ¹⁰ During those specific days the ancient Arabs would visit the Kabah and perform Hajj. It was during these days that large commercial fairs were held with poetic recitals and they offered great opportunities for making new trading contacts. Since fighting was considered unlawful in these months, the pre-Islamic Arabs used to rotate the months of peace as per their own convenience ¹¹ so that they could legalize the attacks on the trade caravans which used to pass through the region.

Religion

Before the advent of Islam in Arabia, most of the Arabs were either polytheists, Sabeans, fire worshippers, Christians or Jews, while very few were the believers of the righteous religion brought by Abraham . The Jews had settled in Madinah (formerly known as Yathrib) and its suburbs a short time after the demise of Moses . Among those Jews, Banu Quraizah, Banu Nadir, and Banu Qainuqa were the most renown. Some Christians also settled in the Ghassan and Najran area and some people of Quza’ah tribe had also converted to Christianity.

Idolatry

Idolatry was introduced in Arabia by Amr bin Lohai around 400 years before the advent of Prophet Muhamad . Since he was one of the Leaders of the Arabian tribes, he installed the idol named ‘Habal’ on the top of Kabah ¹² and two idols named: Nailah and Isaf. Moreover, Amr bin Lohai also rejected the concept of the day of judgment.

After the introduction of these idols, different idols such as Yaguth, Nasr, and Wadd etc. were adopted by different tribes of Arabia. These polytheists had also transformed the Kabah into a center of idolatry and had kept 360 statues inside it, one different god for each day of the year. Besides Kabah, there were other centers of idolatry as well. Ghatfan had constructed a house similar to the Kaabah and called it Qalis and the people even performed their pilgrimage over there. Banu Khatham had also built a house named Dhul-Khalasah, and performed their pilgrimage over there.

Sacrifice

When these idolaters performed their pilgrimage, they would bring camels and sacrifice them in the name of their gods. They had a practice to suspend shoes from the necks of the camels and marked them to signify as sacrificial animals. Nobody would then impede the animals. Some of the tribes even sacrificed humans to the idols. ¹³

Soothsaying

Kahin or soothsayers were found in large number in ancient Arabia. A Kahin was one who claimed to have information about the unseen events. Among the soothsayers of Arabia, Abrash, Shaq and Satih were well-known. Another kind of soothsayer was known as Nasi who could tell about the unseen by focusing his eyes on a tray of water. However, most of these soothsayers were complete liars, and those who were able to forecast anything, were extremely unsure about them.

Food and Clothes

Ancient Arabia did not produce neither silk nor cotton. Some regions produced them in such a meager quantity that it was quite insufficient for the needs of the people. Hence, the Arabs generally had exceptionally basic garments to wear. They would wear coarse clothes with leather patches. Garments were also woven from camel and sheep hair, and those pieces of clothes were also used for making tents and for bedding and carpeting. Loose low hanging colorless shirts, waist sheets and turbans or scarves on the head were the standard dress.

Their food was also very simple and unceremonious. Meat and flesh happened to be delectable and valuable to them. Milk and meat were most common. Cheese, battered barley grain, dates, olive oil, and Harirah were their common items. Sieving of flour was not a common practice; they rather baked bread with un-sieved flour. They had no appropriate dining manners which can be assessed from the do’s and don'ts prescribed by the Prophet for eating and drinking in Ahadith which preclude many kinds of misbehavior like gluttony, indecency, unclean habits and nonsensical talk while eating. ¹⁵

Plunder

As mentioned previously, Arabia had two types of people, one settled in cities and others living a nomadic life, the latter were larger in number. Although the citizens carried some qualities like rights of neighbors, trusteeship and honesty, yet the deceit, cheating and conniving in trade and business was plentiful. These people were expert in raiding and highway robbery of nomadic type. Almost all were addicted for looting the travelers and snatching away goods by force. On finding someone in the journey alone, they covered and hid the wells which were on the way with grass and other things so that the traveler would die of thirst and they would take his goods.

Mourning the Dead

Upon the death of someone, his relatives would tear at their faces and hair, and cry in pain. Women would follow the funeral with their hair untied and head dusted. They were also called for lamenting which they did at the top of their voices, after the burial, these women were served food.

Killing of Daughters

The custom of killing their daughters was rampant among the Banu Tamim and the Quraish. They took pride in killing their daughters and it was for them a status symbol. ¹⁶ This heartlessness reached such a height in some tribes that when the daughter became five or six years, the stone-hearted father would dress her in beautiful garment and take her to a place outside his settlement where he had already dug a deep ditch. He would then make his daughter stand beside the ditch and then pushed her into it and buried her alive while she screamed for her father's help. No screaming would melt his heart and he would return after filling the ditch, proud in burying his daughters alive. ¹⁷

Gambling

Gambling was one of the many vices of pre-Islamic Arabs. They were accustomed to gamble recklessly for their property and their family, and it was common that a man would lose their women and property over a game of chance.

Prostitution

Two types of prostitution existed in Ancient Arabia. The main type was the one which was prevalent worldwide – sex in return for cash while the subsequent type was similar to the modern dating system. These girls would stroll outside in scanty revealing clothes in order to attract the prying eyes of the males. ¹⁸ Furthermore, these ladies would establish special friendly relations with the males and hang out with them in secluded corners to so that both were able to satisfy their desires. This was a love affair for which the women did not charge anything. ¹⁹

The professional prostitutes had established brothels named as ‘Muwakhir’ in Arabia which were recognizable by their specific symbols. These brothels had special red/ black flags fixed outside their tents which signaled to the people that this place was a brothel. ²⁰

Birth of Prophet Muhammad

It was amidst of such conditions and environments that Muhammad was born on 12th Rabi-‘ul-Awal of Aam-ul-feel. ²¹ His father, 'Abdullah had died some weeks before his birth, ²² and it was his mother who got the responsibility of rearing him. Then, according to the prevailing custom, the child was entrusted to Halima Sadia (Bedouin foster-mother) , with whom he passed several years in the desert. All biographers state that the infant prophet sucked from only one side of his foster-mother, leaving the other for the sustenance of his foster-brother. ²³ When the child was brought back home, his mother, Aminah , took him to his maternal uncles at Madinah to visit the tomb of 'Abdullah . During the return journey, Prophet Muhammad’s mother got ill and she died on the way at Abwa ²⁴ and it was his grandfather who took charge of his upbringing. ²⁵ Two years later, his grandfather also passed away at Makkah. So, Prophet Muhammad was consigned at last to the care of his uncle Abu-Talib, ²⁶ a man who was generous of nature but short of resources and hardly able to provide for his family. At the age of 10, he accompanied his uncle to Syria when he was leading a caravan. ²⁷ Abu Talib set up a shop in Makkah and Prophet Muhammad helped him in this enterprise also with several other issues.

By the time he was 25, Prophet Muhammad had become well known in the city for the integrity of his disposition and his honest character. Such was his character that he was known as ‘Al Sadiq’ and ‘Al Ameen’. ²⁸ Inspired by his personality, Khadijah who was one of the richest women of Makkah, offered Prophet Muhamad to look after her business dealings. His first project was to lead a trade caravan which was headed to Syria. Prophet Muhammad’s success at the trade journey and his charming personality motivated Khadija to offer him, her hand. At the time of marriage, Prophet Muhammad was 25 years old and Khadija was of 40. ²⁹ Their marriage lasted for 25 years and ended upon the demise of Khadija . Prophet Muhammad married no one else as long as she lived. ³⁰

Beginning of Spiritual Journey

Prophet Muhammad never worshipped any idols, nor did he believe in them. ³¹ As time went on, Prophet Muhammad started to become more and more absorbed in spiritual meditations. Like his grandfather, he used to resign during the entire month of Ramadan to a cave at Jabal-an-Nur (mountain of light). The cave is called `Ghar-i-Hira and there, he prayed, meditated, ³² and shared his meagre provisions with the travelers who happened to pass by.

He was 40 years old, and it was the 5th consecutive year since his annual retreats, when one night towards the end of the month of Ramadan, an angel came to visit him, and declared that God had chosen him as His messenger to all mankind. The angel informed him the method of ablutions, the way of worshipping God and the conduct of prayer. Profoundly influenced, he returned home and narrated to his wife what had happened, expressing his fears that it might have been something diabolic or the action of evil spirits. She consoled him, saying that he had always been a man of charity and generosity, helping the poor, the orphans, the widows and the needy, and assured him that God would protect him against all evil. ³³

Then came a pause in revelation, extending over 3 years. The news of the first vision had spread and at the pause, the sceptics in the city had begun to mock at him and cut bitter jokes. They went so far as to say that God had forsaken him. During the 3 years of waiting, the Prophet had given himself up more and more to prayers and to spiritual practices. ³⁴ The revelations were then resumed and God assured him that He had not at all forsaken him. On the contrary, it was He who had guided him to the right path, therefore he should take care of the orphans and the destitute, and proclaim the bounty of God on him. ³⁵ This was in reality an order to preach. Another revelation directed him to warn people against evil practices, to urge them to worship none but the One God, and to abandon everything that would displease God. ³⁶

The Holy Prophet began his mission of preaching secretly at first among his intimate friends, then among the members of his own tribe and thereafter publicly in the city and suburbs. He demanded the faith in One Transcendent God, in Resurrection and the Last Judgement. ³⁷ He invited men to charity and beneficence and took necessary steps to preserve through writing the revelations he was receiving, and ordered his adherents also to learn them by heart. This continued all through his life, since the Holy Quran was not revealed all at once, however, in pieces as events emerged.

The number of his adherents increased gradually, but with the denunciation of paganism, the opposition also grew more intense for those who were firmly attached to their ancestral beliefs. This opposition degenerated in the course of time into physical torture of the Holy Prophet and of those who had embraced his religion. His companions were forcefully laid on burning sands, cauterized with red hot iron and imprisoned with chains on their feet. Some of them died by the effects of torture, but none would renounce his religion. ³⁸Resultantly, Prophet Muhammad advised his companions to quit their native town and take refuge abroad, in Abyssinia, where a just ruler governed and no one was oppressed in his territory. Dozens of Muslims profited by his advice, though not all. ³⁹ However, this secret migration prompted further persecution of those who remained behind.

Social Boycott

When a large number of the Makkan Muslims migrated to Abyssinia, the leaders of paganism sent an ultimatum to the tribe of the Prophet and demanded that he should be excommunicated, outlawed or put to death. Every member of the tribe, Muslim and non-Muslim, rejected the demand. ⁴⁰ Immediately, the city decided on a complete boycott of the tribe: Nobody was to talk to them or have commercial or matrimonial relations with them. The group of Arab tribes called Ahabish, inhabiting the suburbs, who were allies of the Makkans, also joined in the boycott, causing stark misery among the innocent victims consisting of children, men and women, the old and the sick and the feeble. Some of them succumbed yet nobody would hand over the Prophet to his persecutors. However, an uncle of the Prophet , Abu Lahab, left his tribesmen and participated in the boycott along with the pagans. Following three dreadful years, during which the victims were obliged to devour even crushed hides, 4 or 5 non-Muslims, more humane than the rest and belonging to different clans publicly proclaimed their denunciation of the unjust boycott. At the same time, the document promulgating the pact of boycott which had been hung in the temple, was found, as Muhammad had predicted, eaten by termite, that spared nothing but the words God and Muhammad . ⁴¹ The boycott was lifted, and after some time, Abu Talib, the chief of the tribe and uncle of the Holy Prophet died around 3 years before hijra. ⁴²

Ascension

Prophet Muhammad was granted the Mi'raj (ascension) on 27th of Rajab after the death of Abu Talib and Khadija almost 2-3 years before Hijra. Jibrael along with two other angels came to receive him and firstly took him from Makkah to Jerusalem, and from there to the heavens where he was received by God, and was a witness to the marvels of the celestial regions. Upon his return, he brought for his community, as a divine gift, Islamic worship i.e. Salat (Namaz), which constitutes a sort of communion between man and God. ⁴³ The news of this celestial meeting led to an increase in the hostility of the pagans of Makkah. ⁴⁴

Taif

After the demise of Abu Talib, there was an increase in persecution by the Quraysh. Consequently, Prophet Muhammad headed towards Taif to invite the people of Banu Thaqif towards Islam. When he reached Taif, he met with the elders of the tribe and presented Islam to them. These leaders not only rejected the invitation, but also disparaged him. Prophet Muhammad left that place and headed towards Madinah. ⁴⁵ He was accompanied by Zaid , and on the way back, these cruel leaders tasked the mischievous children to throw stones at Prophet Muhammad and his companion. At that moment an angel came towards Prophet Muhammad and said that he could destroy the city if the Holy Prophet wished. Prophet Muhammad showed mercy and refused even though the stones had injured him and had drenched his shoes with his precious blood. On the contrary, he prayed for the guidance of those people and history proved that men from Taif accepted Islam in later times, and dedicated their lives for the propagation of Islam like Muhammad bin Qasim.

Migration to Madinah

The annual pilgrimage of the Kabah brought people from all parts of Arabia to Makkah. Prophet Muhammad tried to persuade one tribe after another to accept Islam and support his mission. The contingents of 15 tribes, whom he approached in succession, refused to do so, but he did not despair. Finally, he met half a dozen inhabitants of Madinah who being neighbors of the Jews and the Christians, had some notion of prophets and divine messages. They also knew that these ‘people of the Book’ were awaiting the arrival of a prophet, the last one. So, these people of Madinah decided not to lose the opportunity to obtain an advance over others, and forthwith embraced Islam, and furthermore promised to provide additional adherents and essential assistance from Madinah. The following year, a dozen more people from Madinah took the oath of allegiance to him and requested him to provide them with a missionary teacher. The work of the missionary, Mus'ab , proved very successful and he led a contingent of 73 new converts to Makkah, at the time of the pilgrimage. They invited the Prophet and his Meccan companions to migrate to their town, and promised to shelter the Prophet and to treat him and his companions as their own kith and kin. Secretly and in small groups, the greater part of the Muslims emigrated to Madinah. Upon this, the pagans of Makkah not only confiscated the property of the evacuees, but hatched a plot to assassinate the Holy Prophet . It now became impossible for him to remain at home. It is noteworthy to mention that in spite of their hostility to his mission, the pagans had unbounded confidence in his uprightness and honesty, so much so that many of them used to deposit their savings with him. The Prophet Muhammad now entrusted all these deposits to 'Ali , a cousin of his, with instructions to return in due course to the rightful owners. He then left the town secretly in the company of his faithful friend, Abu-Bakr . After several adventures, they succeeded in reaching Madinah in safety. This happened in 622 A.D., whence starts the Hijrah calendar. ⁴⁶

When Prophet Muhammad arrived in Madinah, he then started to set up the legal, social, moral, economic, political, educational and religious systems of Islam. This was the beginning of a new era where humanity had the option to perceive its genuine worth and re-establish their broken connections with their Creator under the supervision of Prophet Muhammad who used to decide every matter in the light of divine guidance. ⁴⁷

---

• ¹  Nooruddin Ali bin Suleman Al-Haithmi (1992), Mawarid-uz-Zamaan ila Zawaid Ibn Habban, Dar-us-Saqafa Al-Arabia, Damascus, Syria, Vol. 1, Pg. 193.
• ²  Abul Fida Ismail Ibne Kathir (2003), Tafseere-Ibne-Kathir (Abridged), Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Vol. 10, Pg. 600-601.
• ³  Akbar Shah Najeebabadi (2000), The History of Islam, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Vol. 1, Pg. 52-54.
• ⁴  Akbar Shah Najeebabadi (2000), The History of Islam, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Vol. 1, Pg. 52.
• ⁵  Ibid.
• ⁶  Stefan Weninger & Et al. (2011), The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, De Gruyter Mouton, Berlin, Germany, Pg. 782-784.
• ⁷  Encyclopedia Britannica (Online Version): https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arabic-language: Retrieved: 28-09-2019.
• ⁸  Stefan Weninger & Et al. (2011), The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, De Gruyter Mouton, Berlin, Germany, Pg. 782-784.
• ⁹  Stefan Weninger & Et al. (2011), The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, De Gruyter Mouton, Berlin, Germany, Pg. 811-812.
• ¹⁰  Holy Quran, At-Taubah (The Repentance) 9: 36
• ¹¹  Holy Quran, At-Taubah (The Repentance) 9: 37
• ¹²  Abul Fida Ismail Ibne Kathir (1988), Al-Bidaya wan Nihaya, Dar-ul-Ihya At-Turas Al-Arabi, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 2, Pg. 237.
• ¹³  Akbar Shah Najeebabadi (2000), The History of Islam, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Vol. 1, Pg. 68-69.
• ¹⁵  Akbar Shah Najeebabadi (2000), The History of Islam, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Vol. 1, Pg. 73.
• ¹⁶  Dr. Sualih Ahmed Ali (2013), Tareekh-ul-Arab Al-Qadeem wa Besat-un-Nabawiya, Shirkat-ul-Matbua’at lil Tawai wal Nashar, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 1, Pg. 172.
• ¹⁷  Ahmad bin Ali bin Hajar Al-Asqalani (1379 A.H.), Fath-ul-Bari Sharah Sahih Al-Bukhari, Dar-ul-M’arifa, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 3, Pg. 407.
• ¹⁸  Abul Qasim Mahmood Amr Az-Zamakhshari (1407 A.H.), Al-Kashaaf ‘an Haqaiq Ghawamid-ut-Tanzil, Dar-ul-Kitab Al-Arabi, Beirut, Lebanon, Pg. 537.
• ¹⁹  Abu Jabir Al-Jazairi (2015), Hazal Habib Muhammad Ya Mujib, Zia-ul-Quran Publications, Lahore, Pakistan, Vol. 1, Pg. 41.
• ²⁰  Muhammad bin Jareer Abu Jaffer At-Tabari (1420 A.H.), Jam’i-ul-Quran Fi Taweel lil Quran, Moasisat-ur-Risala, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 8, Pg. 107.
• ²¹  Abul Faraj Abdul Rehman bin Al-Jozi (2000), Sifat-us-Safwa, Dar-ul-Hadith, Cairo, Egypt, Vol. 1, Pg. 22.
• ²²  Abu Muhammad Abdul Malik bin Hisham Al-Muafiri (2009), As-Seerat-un-Nabawiya li Ibn Hisham, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Ilmiyah, Beirut, Lebanon, Pg. 128.
• ²³  Abul Faraj Ali bin Ibrahim Al-Halabi (1427 A.H.), As-Seerat-ul-Halabia, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Ilmiyah, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 1, Pg. 131.
• ²⁴  Muhammad bin S’ad Al-Basri (1990), At-Tabqat-ul-Kubra, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Ilmiyah, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 1, Pg. 93-94.
• ²⁵  Abul Walid Muhammad bin Abdullah Al-Azraqi (N.D.), Akhbar Makkah wa Ma Jaa fiha Minal Asaar, Dar-ul-Undulus lil Nashar, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 1, Pg. 149.
• ²⁶  Abul Fatah Muhammad bin Muhammad ibn Sayyidinnas (1414 A.H.), Ulool-ul-Asar fi Funoon-il-Maghazi wa Shamail wa Seer, Dar-ul-Qalam, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 1, Pg. 50.
• ²⁷  Abu S’ad Abdul Malik bin Muhammad Al-Kharkoshi (1424 A.H.), Sharaf-ul-Mustafa, Dar-ul-Bashair-il-Islamia, Makkah, Saudi Arabia, Vol. 1, Pg. 403.
• ²⁸  Abul Abbas Ahmed bin Ali Al-Muqreezi (1999), Imta-’ul-Asma, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Ilmiyah, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 1, Pg. 19.
• ²⁹  Abu Muhammad Abdul Malik bin Hisham Al-Muafiri (2009), As-Seerat-un-Nabawiya li Ibn Hisham, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Ilmiyah, Beirut, Lebanon, Pg. 148-150.
• ³⁰  Muslim bin Al-Hajjaj Al-Neshapuri (2000), Sahih Muslim, Hadith: 6281, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 1080.
• ³¹  Zainuddin Abdul Rehman bin Ahmed ibn Rajab Al-Hanmbali (2004), Lataif-ul-Ma’arif fi ma Limawasim-il-A’ami minal Wazaif, Daru Ibne Hazam lil Taba’ti wal Nashar, Beirut, Lebanon, Pg. 81-82.
• ³²  Muslim bin Al-Hajjaj Al-Neshapuri (2000), Sahih Muslim, Hadith: 403, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 80.
• ³³  Abul Fida Ismail Ibne Kathir (2009), Tafseere-Ibne-Kathir, Dar-ul-Tayba lil Nashar wa Tawz’i, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Vol. 8, Pg. 436-437.
• ³⁴  Abu Hasan Ali bin Ahmed Al Wahidi (1992), Asbabu Nuzule Quran, Dar-ul-Islah, Damam, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 457.
• ³⁵  Holy Quran, Al-Duha (The Late Morning) 93: 3-11
• ³⁶  Holy Quran, Al-Muddassir (The Cloaked One) 74: 2-7
• ³⁷  Abdul Rehman bin Abi Bakr Jalaluddin As-Suyuti (2010), Ad-Durr-ul-Mansoor fi Tafseer-il-Masur, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Ilmiyah, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 5, Pg. 179.
• ³⁸  Dr. Muhammad Hamidullah (1973), Introduction to Islam, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf Publishers, Lahore, Pakistan, Pg. 5-7.
• ³⁹  Muhammad bin Yusuf As-Salihi As-Shami (1993), Subul-ul-Huda wal Rishad, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Ilmiyah, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 2, Pg. 363.
• ⁴⁰  Abul Qasim Abdul Rehman bin Abdullah As-Suhaily (2000), Al-Raud-ul-Anf, Dar-ul-Ihya At-Turath Al-Arabi, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 3, Pg. 8-9.
• ⁴¹  Muhammad bin Ishaq Al-Muttalibi (1978), Seerat Ibne Ishaq, Dar-ul-Fikr, Beirut, Lebanon, Pg. 156-162.
• ⁴²  Abdul Aziz bin Muhammad ibnu Jama’ati Al-Kannani (1993), Al-Mukhtasar-ul-Kabeer fi Seerat-e-Rasool, Dar-ul-Bashir, Oman, Pg. 91.
• ⁴³  Muslim bin Al-Hajjaj Al-Neshapuri (2000), Sahih Muslim, Hadith: 416, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 84.
• ⁴⁴  Dr. Muhammad Hamidullah (1973), Introduction to Islam, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf Publishers, Lahore, Pakistan, Pg. 8.
• ⁴⁵  Abu Muhammad Abdul Malik bin Hisham Al-Muafiri (2009), As-Seerat-un-Nabawiya li Ibn Hisham, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Ilmiyah, Beirut, Lebanon, Pg. 300-302.
• ⁴⁶  Abu Muhammad Abdul Malik bin Hisham Al-Muafiri (2009), As-Seerat-un-Nabawiya li Ibn Hisham, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Ilmiyah, Beirut, Lebanon, Pg. 302-348.
• ⁴⁷  Holy Quran, Al-Najm (The Stars) 53: 3-4