Political System of Islam

At the time of advent of Prophet Muhammad , many political systems existed in the world such as Monarchy, Tyranny, Oligarchy, Democracy, and other tribal systems. The major flaw in those systems was that the selection criteria of the leader was not well defined and none of the ancient civilizations managed to develop a state where the peasants or citizen class prospered. In fact, those systems only benefited a few. In order to be among those few people, humans adopted all sorts of legal and illegal practices. Some even tried to prove that they were divinely connected, hence were superior to all other creations and were designated to rule others, while others used to exploit the weak in any other way. In this way, their authority was unchallenged and they ruled as per their will.

All these political systems of the world were nothing more than a hoax to ensure that the elite kept on ruling over their nations and fulfilled their own luxurious quests while trespassing the basic human rights of the people subject to their rule. Whether it was the monarchy of ancient Egypt, Rome or the Democracy of Greece, none were able to form any stable governments in any area which were free from fratricides, cruelties, or devoid from pursue of personal interests. Some of the kings even practiced incest, just to ensure that the kingship remained in their family.

The condition of the people in such states was pitiful. At times male citizens were enslaved to serve their kings, while the females were enslaved to serve the personal interests of the rulers. Furthermore, these people were heavily taxed to ensure that the budgets for the personal lavish projects of the elite were available. Moreover, if a fight erupted in the royal family, it was the local people who suffered the most as their resources were wasted and their people were persecuted.

The case was not so different in pre-Islamic Arabia as well. Over there, two types of political systems were functional since the peninsula was dis-united. The tribes had their own political system where there was a chief who was the sole authority and was always succeeded by his eldest son while the rest of Arabia was in anarchy. These people remained in chaos till Prophet Muhammad managed to unite them under one universal government.

After the declaration of prophethood, Prophet Muhammad and the Muslims faced severe persecution from the people of Makkah, ¹ therefore they were unable to amend the existing political system. So, after the migration, Prophet Muhammad established a city state at first which developed into one of the largest and most prosperous states in the history of the world. The first ruler of this state was Prophet Muhammad himself who appointed Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali as his political advisors and ministers.

Concept of Politics

Islam is a complete code of life ² encompassing the religious, social, moral, legal, ethical and political aspects. The core ideology behind the Islamic political system is that it is based on the divine will ³ and not purely on the will of humans due to humankind’s erroneous nature. ⁴ This system does not promote a certain family, class, or a race or group to rule due to their ethnic superiority but ensures that only those people rise to the position of power who would ensure that a human welfare state is established according to the will of God Almighty. Furthermore, Islam believes that every eligible person has the right to be the ruler, and rulership is not merely confined to a certain race, class or family only.

In this system, all sovereignty is vested with God. It implies that human beings cannot individually or collectively resort to independent legislation. Even in matters where the Quran and Sunnah are silent, the laws promogulated have to conform with the Shariah which could not be modified. ⁵

The political system recommended by Islam is of Khilafat. Khilafat is an Arabic word which refers to viceregency. ⁶ According to the Islamic viewpoint, humans (who are rightly guided) are the vicegerents of God on this earth ⁷ who use all possible resources to establish the law of God. Four fundamental traits which should generally be found in a true vicegerent are:

1. The person needs to realize that everything belongs to God Almighty alone and not to him or any other one except Allah.
2. The person needs to work according to the instructions and commandments given by God in the Holy Quran or via Prophet Muhammad in the form of his actions and traditions.
3. The person is required not to transgress the set limits by the Creator in any condition because of his own wish or desire because vicegerent might not be allowed to innovate anything new without the permission of his Lord.
4. Being a vicegerent on this earth, the person needs to fulfil the purpose assigned by God and His Prophet rather than pursuing self-interests.

If the person does not follow these four basic conditions, he does not remain a vicegerent of God and is no longer eligible to rule the Muslim Ummah. The fundamental principles of Islamic government that distinguish it from other forms of administration have been listed as:

1. Al-Ubudiyyah: an organizing principle based in devotion to Allah.
2. Al-Shuyuria: that decisions are logical and informed and made through consultation with those who are knowledgeable, experienced and skilled.
3. Al-Hurriyah: principles of human rights and freedom.
4. Al-Musawah: principles of equality and equity.
5. Al-Adalah: that thoughts and actions are grounded in justice (truthfulness, honesty, trustworthiness) ⁸

Fundamental Responsibilities

The duties and functions of a Muslim state are:

1. To establish the religion of God i.e. Islam.
2. To establish the sole sovereignty of Allah.
3. To educate the people about the teachings of Islam within and outside the territory of Islamic State.
4. To develop a proper system of preparation, training and deployment of Muslim Missionaries for the propagation of Islam among the non-Muslims.
5. To provide an equal opportunity to all the citizens to acquire education and knowledge in different fields including modern and contemporary disciplines.
6. To provide an environment where all the practices of Islam might be performed without any restriction.
7. To provide healthy and peaceful environment where every individual should feel secure and protected from all sort of evils.
8. To provide justice in every aspect of life.
9. To provide a free environment from all sort of slavery except the bondmen-ship to God.
10. To provide interest or Riba free economic system.
11. To provide an equal opportunity to all the state members for their financial and economic development.
12. To provide religious freedom and judicial, economic and social autonomy to all the non-Muslim minorities and provide them protection from all the social evils.

Aims and Objectives

It does not matter if the Islamic government is formed in any specific location of the world. Its laws are universal and gives every human its basic rights regardless of the fact that the person is a friend or foe or lives in the Islamic territory or elsewhere. Their rights, life, respect is considered extremely important hence if the person is hungry, he is provided with food, the people with lack of clothing are provided with clothes and the ill are provided with treatment because these are the core ideologies which form the base of the Islamic government. Moreover, if a Muslim from one territory enters another, then he is considered a citizen of the second territory as well since Islam does not create divisions due to geographical differences. ⁹ That is why most fundamental aims of an Islamic state are:

1. To establish the institution of Khilafa.
2. To implement the Islamic Laws.
3. To protect the basic theory of Islam.
4. To extent its geographical boundaries.
5. To head all the positive and constructive Dawa and reformative activities.
6. To establish justice for all.
7. To provide religio-spiritual and ethico-moral environment within the Islamic territory.
8. To eradicate all the evils.
9. To maintain peace and prosperity.

Administration

Pre-Islamic Bedouin practices of organization, consisted primarily of elected chiefs who ruled by persuasion and under the influence of public opinion. Authority formed through personal allegiance, kinship as a cohering factor, election of leaders by pre-eminent families and a continual consultative process. While tribal practices were not usually associated with administration, the principles and practices by which tribes maintained internal order and inter-tribal relations were significant in the pre-Islamic period, many of which were reinforced in Islam since they were not against its teachings. Internal organization was relatively egalitarian with political authority, operating in a highly decentralized fashion through a democratic-consultative practice. Tribal clans had sophisticated procedures in regulating their own affairs through ‘tribal law’, including codes of mediation in resolving personal, family and inter-tribal disputes, maintaining collective responsibility and having recognized scales of compensation.

During the reign of the Prophet Muhammad and Khilafat-e-Rashida, administrative structures and practices gradually evolved and developed. Significant financial structures and personnel were put in place under Abu Bakr and a more rapid expansion of a bureaucracy to consolidate the new empire under Umar , requiring a more developed administrative apparatus. It was Umar who first established the new Islamic state’s legislative, executive and administrative powers, as well as its record-keeping system, a tax administration and treasury, a personnel system, a census, minting coinage and codifying law according to the teachings of Prophet Muhammad .

Islamic administration is also distinguishable for the social, political and moral values that administrators should advance, ranging from how they treat others in an ethical system that includes behavior, action, thinking and heart to major values of Ahsan (benevolence), ¹⁰ as an emphasis on sincerity, which should be an element in all of their actions. It also includes the prohibition of exploitation ¹¹ and using bribery. ¹² Some scholars approach them as seven Islamic meta-values that govern thought and action for everyone in all spheres of life that are grounded in moral accountability and law aimed at maintaining social order and balance:

1. Equality and social equity
2. Justice
3. Kindness and compassion
4. Righteousness and true conviction.
5. Self-control and self-discipline.
6. Respect for private property.
7. Personal growth through constant learning.

An important feature of the social-equity principle is a concentration on the welfare of others in the community and the society at large reflecting the strong collectivist orientation of Islam. The conceptions of justice and kindness are interpreted to mean creating a balance between the material and spiritual worlds as well as others’ rights, as they guide one’s thoughts and actions along with self-control, which should delimit self-interest. The final category, end goals and values, consists of the strong humanistic tradition in Islam composed of substantive rationality such as: social order, people’s betterment in health, welfare and personal development, development of faith, and socio-political accountability.

Collectively these can be viewed as a betterment of humanity as a substantive end, which cannot be reduced to the materialist and economic values of neoliberal ideology. Therefore, these needed to be present in person who is aspiring to lead the Muslims. While overlapping with other administrative traditions in some respects, Islamic administration forms a distinctive approach, the main differentiation from current Western management systems being a belief system that consists of Islamic substantive values that should guide intentions, decision-making and actions in the way organizations are structured, the way people work in them and manage their social relations, and the ends which they aim at through policy and planning. ¹²

Selection Criteria

Islam provided the only selection criteria for the rulers of the state which was free from nepotism, race bias, and other discriminatory practices. It asserted that only those people were fit to rule who were pious, God fearing, and possessed the necessary skills for the post. The selection of the rulers in other civilization was only in place to ensure that the next son of the king became the heir to the throne and it did not matter how educated that person was or what was his character.

To select a ruler in the Islamic state, it is preferred that a Shura is consulted. The term Shura is an act, an idea, a social technique and a political institution which is central to the Islamic political system and is the very basis of it. It is a direct outcome of the theory of viceregency and the basic spirit of Islamic society. ¹⁴ The members of the Shura are practicing, knowledgeable and mature Muslims ¹⁵ who elect the people who they deem worthy of power and governance. ¹⁶ This Shura was established by Prophet Muhammad himself and he would also consult it on some issues. ¹⁷

Islam does not favor democracy as a selection system for the rulers because in this system, the vote of an intellectual has the same value as the vote of a sweeper, mechanic or even a criminal. Some modern Islamic thinkers, whose ideas were particularly popular in the 1970s and 1980s, rejected the notion of democracy as a foreign idea incompatible with Islam but the orthodox scholars argued that traditional Islamic notions such as shura, maslaha (public interest), and ʿadl (justice) justify representative government institutions which might be similar to Western democracy in appearance, but reflect Islamic rather than Western liberal values according to which a dominant group might decide ‘what is right and what is wrong’ as per its own will and desire which is against the Islamic view point of state where this right only belongs to God Almighty alone.

The Khilafat-e-Rashida, was not democratic in the modern sense at all. Decision-making was in the hand of trusted, well-trained, pious, and expert companions of Prophet Muhammad and representatives of different tribes (who were also Prophet Muhammad’s companions and most of them selected or elected within their clans). In the Islamic Caliphate system, the head of state, the Caliph, were undeniably trustworthy, well-trained, virtuous, and skillful practicing Muslim like Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali .

Foreign Policy

Muslim International Law and its precepts are founded on universal truths. Such precepts can apply to the whole humanity regardless of religion and race. In the Islamic concept of world order, a commitment made by the Muslim State binds the entire community if it is made by a trustworthy, well-trained, pious and responsible leader. Islam permits the individual, even if the person is a slave, to offer protection to an enemy, then his pledge is respected. The Ambassador is considered immune from all violations and enjoys the freedom of creed and returns to his country in all safety and security.

Islam tolerates, on its territory, a multiplicity of laws, with autonomous judiciary for each community. A stranger, therefore, belongs to the jurisdiction of his own confessional tribunal. Such is the toleration of Islam which seeks to establish a world order based on the principle of peaceful co-existence. ¹⁸

Nature of Islamic State

The state of Madinah which was shaped by the Holy Prophet was entirely based on divine laws that imparted social justice and hence it was an ideal state. Even Prophet Muhammad followed the divine laws so the new state could not be styled as a kingship or monarchy. In that state, no citizen was superior than the others. The Arabs were not superior to non-Arabs, the white had no superiority over the blacks ¹⁹ since both descended from Prophet Adam . This was the ethical basis which marks the Islamic state as superior by far to the modern state which ignores the laws of morality in all of its affairs and thinks of sovereignty in the human terms.

Administration of Khilafate Rashida

The Islamic caliphate, which was spread over a large area was divided into smaller provinces. Some of these states were vassal states ²⁰ and had a major non-Muslim population. There was a central administration situated at the headquarter (Madinah), which was responsible for monitoring and controlling the departments.

The largest administrative task faced by most states was of securing tax revenues for the state treasury. Historical sources prove that an elaborate administrative system for the assessment, collection, and management of taxes existed at that time. The system was well monitored and the governor kept his eyes open for any case of tax extortion done by the tax collecting officials. ²¹

The smaller provinces although reported back to the central administration, but still were autonomous in their operations. Each state had its own army and police units, but they could ask the center for help in case of emergencies. The tax collected at a particular area was firstly spent for the welfare of that area, and the excess was either kept as a reserve in the state treasury or was sent to the central administration. The Local administration also consisted of market officers, scribes, judges (qadis), local administrators (rua’sa) and local representatives.

Prominent Rulers

Unlike the rulers of other civilizations such as the Greeks, Romans, and Persians etc., the Muslim rulers did not become famous for their luxurious lifestyles, and cruelty incidents etc., but due to their great contributions to the society and the state. The four most prominent Muslim rulers after Prophet Muhammad were as follows:

Abu Bakr

Abu Bakr’s real name was Abdullah bin Abi Quhafah who was born in 573 A.D. He was the first person to accept Islam among adults. ²² He was the most distinguished figure of Islam after Prophet Muhammad . He was diligent, wise and a great statesman, and occupies a unique place in the history of Islam. After the demise of Prophet Muhammad , he was the first Caliph of Islam who established the Rashidun Caliphate (632-634 A.D.). ²³ He was known as ‘Al-Siddiq’ (The Truthful). His reign lasted for 2 years and 2 months and 25 days. Since he was the first ruler after Prophet Muhammad’s demise, he had to face a lot of problems but he displaced his immaculate skills in administration and military and overcame all over the problems. During his reign, he had to deal with the apostasy movement, which he crushed comprehensively. Then he successfully dealt with the tribes who had refused to pay the Zakat. ²⁴ Moreover, successful campaigns were launched against the Byzantine and Persian empire in his regime. ²⁵ He was the man who ordered to compile the Holy Quran in a book form after a strenuous scrutiny process. In the beginning, he refused to draw a salary as a ruler of state but on the advice of Umar and Abu Ubaidah , he discontinued his trade of clothes and drew a meager salary from the state treasury. ²⁶

Umar

Umar , also spelled as Omar was the son of Khattab ²⁷ and was born on 583 A.D. ²⁸ He was one of the senior companions of Prophet Muhammad and was one of the most influential and most powerful caliphs in Muslim history. He was given the title of Al-Farooq (the one who distinguishes between the right and the wrong) ²⁹ by the Holy Prophet since he was an expert in justice and jurisprudence. He succeeded Abu Bakr as the second Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate which lasted for 10 years. ³⁰ During his Caliphate, the boundaries of the Islamic Caliphate expanded further. It was in his rule that the Sassanian empire was destroyed completely, and Jerusalem came under the rule of Muslims. ³¹

He was the first to establish a special department for the investigation of complaints against the officers of state known as the administrative court. He was also the pioneer of the public ministry system where the records of all the soldiers and officials were kept. He was also the first to establish a proper police system which maintained civil order. To ensure that the caliphate functioned smoothly, he divided the large area into smaller provinces and appointed a governor for each state. His agricultural reforms included the import of grains during draughts and the construction of canals which reached the areas with low supply of water.

During the great famine of 638 A.D. Umar ordered caravans of food and other supplies from Basra and Egypt and personally supervised its distribution in the famine hit ideas and managed to save countless lives in Arabia. ³² Most importantly, Umar established the first welfare state. To fulfil his commitment, he made a bait ul maal ³³ which aided the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, elderly, widows, orphans and disabled along with other needy people. He also made trade tax free in the Islamic Caliphate. ³⁴

Uthman

When Umar was martyred in 643 A.D., ³⁵ Uthman , the son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad ³⁶ was selected as the third Caliph of Islam. ³⁷ During his rule, the caliphate expanded further and Muslims took over Anatolia and Asia Minor in the west. It was in his era that the territorial boundaries of the Caliphate reached its peak. He was the first Muslim ruler to establish the first Arab Navy, ³⁸ and it was in his rule that the Holy Quran was compiled at the accent of Quraish. Uthman was also responsible for many economic reforms which ensured the economic prosperity of the people. ³⁹

He was a kind-hearted man and belonged to one of the senior companions of Prophet Muhammad and never hesitated to spend his personal money for the cause of Islam. ⁴⁰ At the end of his rule, his house was held under siege by the rebels who wanted to overthrow his government by assassinating him. Hence in 655 A.D. (35 H.). the rebels climbed through the back wall and martyred Uthman ⁴¹

Ali

Ali was the son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad and the fourth Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate. After the martyrdom of Uthman , Madinah was left without any government for three days, after which Ali was asked to be the caliph. He declined the offer ⁴² and put the matter in front of the Muslim public. The companions of the Holy Prophet considered him to be the fittest candidate for the post, and he was finally selected. He led the people in one of the hardest periods in Muslim history.

He believed that the governors appointed by Uthman were the main cause of all the chaos because they had not kept the people under check, hence, he replaced them. All of them accepted his order except Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan who wanted Uthman to be avenged first and declared his separate government in Egypt. ⁴³

As a ruler, Ali resumed all the lands from the elite which had been granted to them by Uthman and swore to resume everything the elites had taken before him. According to the need of his time, he changed the policy of centralization of capital control over provincial income and wanted an equal distribution of taxes among all Muslims in their respective areas to settle down the prevailing anarchy. He would also distribute the entire revenue of deewan among the people, especially the poor, without keeping anything in reserve.

In his rule, many people planned insurgencies, but when they failed, they decided to martyr the Caliph. Hence on 661 A.D., Ali was attacked while going for the morning prayer with a poisoned sword which led to his martyrdom two days later. ⁴⁴

Overall, the political system proposed by Islam and implemented by Prophet Muhammad and the Rashidun Caliphate was ideologically and practically superior than the political systems of Rome, Greece, Persia and Egypt etc. It not only offered a better selection system for a ruler, but also made sure that the leader was not left unaccountable with unlimited power and authority. Furthermore, the hereditary succession policy was also abolished and was placed in the hands of educated, honest, pious, God-fearing, wise and experienced people who made their decision in the interest of public. Resultantly, the Islamic society had a strong chain of rulers at least in first 30 years who worked for the betterment of the people by establishing the law of God Almighty. This led to the construction of the first welfare state in history which was unknown to every other civilization.

• ¹ Abul Fida Ismail Ibne Kathir (2009), Tafseere-ibne-Kathir, Dar-ul-Tayba lil Nashar wat Tawz’i, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Vol. 8, Pg. 514-517.
• ² Holy Quran, Al-Maidah (The Table Spread) 5: 3
• ³ Holy Quran, Al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage) 22: 41
• ⁴ Muhammad bin Eisa Al-Tirmidhi (2009), Sunan At-Tirmizi, Hadith: 2499, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 748.
• ⁵ Elisa Giunchi (1994), II Politico: The Political Thought of Abu Ala Mawdudi, Rubbettino Editore, Soveria Manelli, Italy, Vol. 59, No. 2, Pg. 353.
• ⁶ Louis Maluf (1994), Al-Munjid, Dar-ul-Isha’t, Karachi, Pakistan, Pg. 292-293
• ⁷ Holy Quran, Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2: 30
• ⁸ Eugenie Samier (2017), The Islamic Public Administration Tradition: Historical, Theoretical and Practical Dimensions, Halduskultuur, Talin, Estonia, Pg. 59-62.
• ⁹ Sayyid Abul A’la Mawdudi, Islami Nizam-e-Zindagi Aur Uske Bunyadi Tasawwurat, Islamic Publications Pvt. Ltd., Lahore, Pakistan, Pg. 348-355.
• ¹⁰ Holy Quran, Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2: 195
• ¹¹ Holy Quran, Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2: 188
• ¹² Abu-Dawud Sulayman bin Al-Ash’as Al-Sajistani (2009), Sunan Abi Dawud, Hadith: 3580, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 760.
• ¹² Eugenie Samier (2017), The Islamic Public Administration Tradition: Historical, Theoretical and Practical Dimensions, Halduskultuur, Talin, Estonia, Pg. 59-62
• ¹⁴ Tauseef Ahmed Parray (2012), World Journal of Islamic History and Civilization: Islamic Democracy or Democracy in Islam – Some Key Democratic Concepts and Notions, IDOSI Publications, Dubai, UAE, Vol. 2, No. 2, Pg. 72.
• ¹⁵ Sulaiman Sheu Adua & Moshood Olayinka Salahu (2018), The Islamic Shura System and the Western Democratic Process: Synergism for Good Governance and Credible Leadership, International Journal of Current Innovation Research, Vol. 4, Issue: 10, Pg. 1360-1361.
• ¹⁶ Abul Fida Ismail Ibne Kathir (1988), Al-Bidaya wan Nihaya, Dar-ul-Ihya At-Turath Al-Arabi, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 7, Pg. 163.
• ¹⁷ Holy Quran, Aale-Imran (The Family Imran) 3: 159
• ¹⁸ Dr. Mohammad Muslehuddin, Islam and its Political System, Islamic Publications (Pvt) Ltd., Lahore, Pakistan, Pg. 55-57.
• ¹⁹ Ahmed bin Muhammad Abu Abdullah Al-Shaibani (2001), Al-Musnad Imam Ahmad bin Hanmbal, Moasisat-ur-Risala, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 38, Pg. 474.
• ²⁰ Muhammad bin Jareer Abu Ja’fer At-Tabari (1387 A.H.), Tareekh-e-Tabri, Dar-ut-Turas, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 3, Pg. 607-609.
• ²¹ Fred M. Donner (1986), Journal of the American Oriental Society: The Formation of the Islamic State, American Oriental Society, Michigan, USA, Vol. 106, No. 2, Pg. 286-287.
• ²² Ahmed bin Hussain Al-Qusuntini (1984), Waseelat-ul-Islam lil Nabi Alaihi Salatu Wassalam, Dar-ul-Gharbi Islami, Beirut, Lebanon, Pg. 72.
• ²³ Ahmed bin Ali bin Hajar Al-Asqalani (1994), Al-Isaba fi Tamyeez-is-Sahaba, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Ilmiyah, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 4, Pg. 144.
• ²⁴ Ahmed bin Ali Al-Muqreezi (1999), Imta-ul-Asma, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Ilmiyah, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 6, Pg. 167.
• ²⁵ Ibne Athir Al-Jazri (1997), Al-Kaamil fi Taareekh, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Arabi, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 2, Pg. 248-259.
• ²⁶ Abdul Rehman bin Abi Bakr Jalaluddin As-Suyuti (2004), Tareekh-ul-Khulafa, Maktabat-ul-Nizar Mustafa Al-Baaz, Makkah, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 63.
• ²⁷ Abul Qasim Ali bin Hasan ibn Asakir (1995), Tareekh-e-Damishq, Dar-ul-Fikar lil Taba’ati wa Nashar wa Tawz’i, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 44, Pg. 11.
• ²⁸ Abu Umar Yusuf bin Abdullah Al-Qurtubi (1992), Al-Istiab fi Maarifati Ashaab, Dar-ul-Jail, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 3, Pg. 1144.
• ²⁹ Ahmed bin Muhammad Abu Abdullah Al-Shaibani (1983), Fazail-us-Sahaba, Moasisat-ur-Risala, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 1, Pg. 103.
• ³⁰ Abu Hatim Muhammad Ibn Habban Al-Busti (1988), Al-Ahsan Fi Taqreeb-e-Sahih Ibn Habban, Moasisat-ur-Risala, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 15, Pg. 34-38.
• ³¹ Abdul Rehman bin Abi Bakr Jalaluddin As-Suyuti (2004), Tareekh-ul-Khulafa, Maktabat-ul-Nizar Mustafa Al-Baaz, Makkah, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 106.
• ³² Abul Fida Ismail Ibne Kathir (1988), Al-Bidaya wan Nihaya, Dar-ul-Ihya At-Turas Al-Arabi, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 7, Pg. 103.
• ³³ Abdullah bin Muhammad Abu Bakr bin Abi Shaiba (1409 A.H.), Al-Kitab-ul-Musannaf fil Ahadith wal Asaar, Maktabat-ul-Rushd, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Vol. 6, Pg. 452
• ³⁴ Ahmad bin Yahya Al-Blazari (1988), Futooh-ul-Buldaan, Dar wa Maktabat-ul-Hilal, Beirut, Lebanon, Pg. 431-442.
• ³⁵ Ahmad bin Yahya Al-Blazari (1988), Futooh-ul-Buldaan, Dar wa Maktabat-ul-Hilal, Beirut, Lebanon, Pg. 431-442.
• ³⁶ Ibne Athir Al-Jazri (1997), Al-Kaamil fi Taareekh, Dar-ul-Kutub Al-Arabi, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 2, Pg. 550.
• ³⁷ Abdul Rehman bin Abi Bakr Jalaluddin As-Suyuti (2004), Tareekh-ul-Khulafa, Maktabat-ul-Nizar Mustafa Al-Baaz, Makkah, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 117.
• ³⁸ Muhammad bin Jareer Abu Ja’fer At-Tabari (1387 A.H.), Tareekh-e-Tabri, Dar-ut-Turas, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 4, Pg. 290.
• ³⁹ Suleman bin Ahmad At-Tibrani (1994), Al-M’ujam-ul-Kabeer, Makataba Ibn Taimiyah, Cairo, Egypt, Vol. 1, Pg. 87.
• ⁴⁰ Muhammad bin Eisa Al-Tirmidhi (2009), Sunan At-Tirmizi, Hadith: 3701, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 1094.
• ⁴¹ Abul Fida Ismail Ibne Kathir (1988), Al-Bidaya wan Nihaya, Dar-ul-Ihya At-Turas Al-Arabi, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 7, Pg. 76-77.
• ⁴² Ibid, Pg. 222-225.
• ⁴³ Muhammad bin Jareer Abu Ja’fer At-Tabari (1387 A.H.), Tareekh-e-Tabri, Dar-ut-Turas, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 4, Pg. 442-444.
• ⁴⁴ Muhammad bin Jareer Abu Ja’fer At-Tabari (1387 A.H.), Tareekh-e-Tabri, Dar-ut-Turas, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 5, Pg. 145-146.