Lifestyle of Muslims

Early in the 7th century, unnoticed by the rest of the world, a civilization was born in the interior of Arabia. Within an amazingly short time - little more than twenty years - it gathered momentum and absorbed the unruly tribesmen of the peninsula. Spilling out from Arabia, it rapidly extended political sway over the surrounding regions, consolidated its hold in the years that followed, and in the 3rd century of its existence, developed a most brilliant and creative culture. Its advent changed the course of history and enriched human heritage by the creation of an illustrious civilization. It continues today to be the spiritual anchor and guide of a major portion of humanity. ¹

Islam is seen by many scholars as a religion that consists of a set of political, economic, legal, and social doctrines that affect every facet of the social life of believers. Quranic teachings promote an ascetic ethic of self-control that bears on virtually all aspects of everyday activity. For Muslims, faith has not merely been a matter of private life and a personal relation with God. It has had pervasive social consequences as well. Thus, it may be stated that Islam develops a strong sense of moral community, where religion is an influential social force generating social sanctions, and that this contributes to a low crime rate. ² Islamic culture is both rational and universal. Faith is linked to science, science is close to ethics, and ethics is mingled with nature. This is also why, in Islam, there are no such assertions as ‘faith without science’ or ‘art without ethics’. ³

Islam based the society on the association of belief alone, instead of the low associations based on race and color, language and country, regional and national interests. Instead of stressing those traits common to both man and animal, it promoted the qualities which are present in the subconscious mind of every human being. It is the environment in which they are brought up which shapes their beliefs, traits etc. Islam nurtures them, makes them the dominant factor and reverts humanity towards its ‘humane’ traits.

Some of the concrete and brilliant results of this attitude were that the Islamic society became an open and all-inclusive community in which people of various races, nations, languages and colors were members, and the traces of low animalistic traits were eliminated. The rivers of higher talents and various abilities of all races of mankind flowed into this vast ocean and mixed in it. Their intermingling gave rise to a high level of civilization in a very short span of time, dazzling the whole world, and compounded the essences of all the human capabilities, ideas and wisdom of that period, in spite of the fact in those times travel was difficult and the means of communication were slow. In this great Islamic society Arabs, Persians, Syrians, Egyptians, Turks, Chinese, Indians, Romans, Greeks, Africans etc. were gathered together- in short, peoples of all nations and all races. Their various characteristics were united, and with mutual cooperation, harmony and unity they took part in the construction of the Islamic community and Islamic culture. ⁴

Calendar

In pre-Islamic Arabia, various systems of measuring time were in vogue. Some calendars were lunar, while others were lunisolar – using months based on the phases of the moon but intercalating days outside the lunar cycle to synchronize the calendar with the seasons.

As it is generally known, the Hijri calendar was established by Umar who was the second Righteous Caliph.⁵ This was done during his caliphate, after a thorough consultation with the companions of Prophet Muhammad . The Hijrah, or the Migration of the Holy Prophet and his companions from Makkah to Madinah, was chosen as the starting point for the new calendar. The starting date for the calendar was chosen, counting backwards, to the first day of the first month (i.e., 1st Muharram) of the year of the Hijrah. ⁶ According to the new calendar, the first day of Muharram, corresponds to July 16, 622 C.E. Islamic calendar’s (Hijriyyah) determination based on observable new moon (hilaal) ⁷ with mean period of 29.5306 days. So that one Islamic lunar calendar is 354.3671 days ⁸ approximately with minor differences in opinions.

Hijri calendar is 10/11 days shorter than Gregorian calendar thus, Islamic months do not remain constant as they circulate throughout the year. ⁹ The Muslim calendar year consists of 12 months of which 4 are sacred; ¹⁰ namely: Dhul-Qa'da, Dhul-Hijja, Muharram and Rajab. ¹¹ Hijri Calendar includes following months in the mentioned specific order: Muharram, Safar, Rabi’ al-Awwal, Rabi’ al-Akhir, Jamadi al-Ula, Jamadi ath-Thaniyya, Rajab, Sha’ban, al-Ramadan, Shawwal, Dhi’l Qa’da and Dhi’l Hajj. ¹²

Social Classes

Unlike all the civilizations of the ancient world, the Islamic Civilization treats every human equal in status and privileges. ¹³ In Islamic society, all men are born equal and are off springs of the same father and mother (Prophet Adam and Eve ). ¹⁴ They are created from the same elements ¹⁵ and are subject to the same principle and law. ¹⁶ Birth does not determine the status of a man in society. Thus, the doctrine of caste is ideologically contradictory to the basic tenets of Islam. Social distinction and discrimination on the basis of birth, lineage, wealth, occupation and other material gains is baseless and is considered to be of no value. Real distinction is due to piety and righteousness. ¹⁷ It is strongly emphasized that all believers regardless of their social and ethnic background are equal and enjoy the same privileges. These are the potential part of a universal Muslim brotherhood. ¹⁸ Hierarchy, if any based is on piety and moral excellence of man. It is narrated from Prophet Muhammad on the occasion of the last sermon: There is no superiority for an Arab over a non-Arab, nor for a non-Arab over an Arab. Neither is the white superior over the black, nor is the black superior over the white -- except by piety. ¹⁹ Even slaves were declared as brothers and Muslims were commanded to feed them and clothe them according to normal standards at least. Moreover, they were asked not to give tasks to the slaves which were beyond their capacity. This alludes to the fact the Muslim society does not tolerate discrimination, racism, and upholds the rights of humans which was not seen in any other civilization of the world.

Family

Muslims believe that family life is the foundation of human society which provides a secure, healthy and nurturing environment for parents and growing children. The children are a blessing, provided by God Almighty to a man and woman who are bound by the solemn covenant of marriage. ²⁰ Since the parents are responsible for taking care of the children, the children’s duties to its parents are second only to their duties to Allah. This is why the children are told to treat their parents with respect. ²¹ Muslim parents are tasked to care for their children physically and emotionally. The goal is that their children should grow into self-disciplined, ethical, moral and independent adults who are connected with their Creator. Parents are guardians of their children. ²² They are expected to teach their children right and wrong. ²³ Hence, the best place to pass on and develop human virtues such as love, kindness, mercy ²⁴ and compassion is within a proper family.

The Islamic concept of the family is, the unison of man and woman through a marriage contract. ²⁵ Prophetic guidelines encourage marriage and the formation of families. ²⁶ Neither extendedness nor polygamy is a condition to or prerequisite for the foundation of the family in Islam. The Muslim family may be extended, polygamous, both extended and polygynous, or neither, but in order to be polygamous, it is necessary for Muslim men to fulfill the rights of all their spouses which includes shelter, food, clothing and other rights. ²⁷

Islam made men and women leaders in their respective domains. According to its teachings, the husband is made the head of family, ²⁸ and responsible for the maintenance, protection, and overall headship of the family within the framework of consultation and kindness. He is also made responsible providing the needs of the family. When the husband spent something on his family, it is regarded as Sadaqa for him ²⁹ at the same time he is also warned of severe consequences if he does not do so.

Islam also made females (wives) the queens of the house. Righteous wives are those who are devoutly obedient to their husbands and take care of the honor and respect of household and family. ³⁰ The Holy Quran regarded both a wife and husband a garment of each other ³¹ which demands both of them to be respectful and caring towards each other.

Moreover, Islam does not favor a loose and disjointed family system which is devoid of any authority, control and discipline and in which someone is not responsible of the proper conduct and behavior of its members. Discipline can only be maintained through a central authority and in the view of Islam the position of father in the family is such that it makes him the fittest person to take over this responsibility. According to Islam the real spirit of marital life is love, understanding and mutual respect. If the woman has been asked to obey the husband, the latter has been called upon to exercise his privileges towards the welfare of the family and treat the wife with love, affection and sweetness. ³²

The Family is also responsible for providing the community with sound offspring. Hence, The Holy Prophet encouraged Muslims to marry loving and child-bearing women. ³³ Another important purpose of family is to raise competent individuals to help build society through knowledge, work, promoting virtue and forbidding vice and establish model families to which others can look up to and emulate families that follow the Prophetic guidance. This is by far the ultimate goal of any family as expressed in the invocation: ‘And those who submit, Our Lord, soothe our eyes with our wives and our children and make us leaders of the pious.’ ³⁴

Men

Islamic law and practice recognize the differences between the sexes, resulting in different roles and obligations for men and women. However, Muslims believe that men and women complement each other. In Islamic societies, the woman's role is in the home and the man's role is in the public realm of the working world. Generally, men are physically stronger than women, therefore, they are regarded as protectors of women and families, and providers of financial support. ³⁵ However, if needed women are allowed to work as well. ³⁶

The Quran projects a detailed portrait of the good Muslim man and how to live a life exemplifying Islamic precept. Fundamentals include performing of good deeds and shunning of evil deeds, observing sensible conduct, and behaving in a humble, restrained and compassionate manner. ³⁷ A Muslim man is required to keep his duty towards Allah and speak the truth. ³⁸ A Muslim is thought to be courageous and have firm faith in Allah while facing difficulties. ³⁹ He needs to be moderate in eating and drinking and needs to avoid extravagancy. ⁴⁰ He is always required to be a maintainer of justice and bearers of true witness for Allah, even if it (the truth) goes against his own self or parents or relatives. ⁴¹ He is commanded to be devoted and sincere towards Allah and human beings. ⁴² A true Muslim, needs to be selfless and generous. He is ordered to support the poor, the orphans out of love of Allah and not demand reward nor thanks from people. ⁴³ Humility, ⁴⁴ patience, ⁴⁵ restraining anger, showing forgiveness ⁴⁶ etc. are the essential qualities of a true believer.

Purity and cleanliness of mind and body is the part of a Muslim man as well. ⁴⁷ Beside this Modesty is the most essential quality of a Muslim. Quran orders both men and women to lower their gaze and be modest. ⁴⁸ A verse of the Holy Quran mentions a number of qualities a Muslim, man or woman, should try to acquire:

  إِنَّ الْمُسْلِمِينَ وَالْمُسْلِمَاتِ وَالْمُؤْمِنِينَ وَالْمُؤْمِنَاتِ وَالْقَانِتِينَ وَالْقَانِتَاتِ وَالصَّادِقِينَ وَالصَّادِقَاتِ وَالصَّابِرِينَ وَالصَّابِرَاتِ وَالْخَاشِعِينَ وَالْخَاشِعَاتِ وَالْمُتَصَدِّقِينَ وَالْمُتَصَدِّقَاتِ وَالصَّائِمِينَ وَالصَّائِمَاتِ وَالْحَافِظِينَ فُرُوجَهُمْ وَالْحَافِظَاتِ وَالذَّاكِرِينَ اللَّهَ كَثِيرًا وَالذَّاكِرَاتِ أَعَدَّ اللَّهُ لَهُمْ مَغْفِرَةً وَأَجْرًا عَظِيمًا 35 ⁴⁹

  Indeed the Muslim men and Muslim women, and the believing men and the believing women, and the men who obey and the women who obey, and the truthful men and the truthful women, and the patient men and the patient women, and the humble men and the humble women, and charitable men and the charitable women, and the fasting men and the fasting women, and the men who guard their chastity and the women who guard their chastity, and the men who profusely remember Allah and the women who profusely remember Allah – for all of them, Allah has kept prepared forgiveness and an immense reward.

This verse plainly tells what qualities and characteristics are of real worth in the sight of God. These are the basic values of Islam which have been compressed into one sentence. As regards these, there is no difference between the man and woman. However, as for their life activity, the two sexes have separate spheres to function. The males have to function in some particular spheres and the females in some others. But if they possess these qualities and characteristics equally, Allah will raise them to equal ranks and bless them with equal rewards. It will not affect their rank and reward if one carried out household chores and the other performed the duties of caliphate and enforced the Shariah injunctions; one raised child in the house and the other went to the battlefield and fought for the sake of Allah and His religion. ⁵⁰

Women

In Islam, a woman enjoys the same status as that of a man. ⁵¹ There is no difference between man and woman as regards status, rights and blessings both in this world and in the hereafter. Both are equal participants so far as the carrying out of the functions of daily living is concerned. If Islam stresses the division of labor between the sexes rather than sexual equality, it is because it does not countenance the idea of either sex suffering from the feelings of degradation and inferiority resulting from any imitation of the opposite sex. As the Prophet once said: ‘those men are cursed who try to resemble women, and those women are cursed who try to resemble men.’ ⁵² The biological division of human beings into male and female is the result of purposeful planning on the part of the Creator. And there can be no human progress without constant respect being shown for this division. Any attempt to cross the dividing line laid down by the Almighty is akin to breaking down the whole system of nature, a procedure which can lead only to destruction. ⁵³

Other than the Islamic civilization, women were denied even the most basic human rights and were put, in most times, in a lower position in terms of training and ranking. The Sumerian, Assyrian and Babylonian civilizations in Mesopotamia treated women with contempt and held their opinion to be simply irrelevant. The Hammurabi law would blame women for assumed wrongdoings which they did not actually commit, and unlike in the case of killing a man, no man would be given the capital punishment if he killed a woman. ⁵⁴

In ancient times, woman came to be considered inferior, one distressing result of which was that she was deprived, among many other things, of the right to inherit property. She was not even entitled to a share of family property. How great an incapacitating factor this was, may be judged from the neglect and degrading treatment which women had to suffer for centuries. It was not until the advent of Islam, that, for the first time in the history of mankind, women were given their due legal rights over property. ⁵⁵ This is mentioned in the Holy Quran as:

  لِلرِّجَالِ نَصِيبٌ مِمَّا تَرَكَ الْوَالِدَانِ وَالْأَقْرَبُونَ وَلِلنِّسَاءِ نَصِيبٌ مِمَّا تَرَكَ الْوَالِدَانِ وَالْأَقْرَبُونَ مِمَّا قَلَّ مِنْهُ أَوْ كَثُرَ نَصِيبًا مَفْرُوضًا 7 ⁵⁶

  For men is a share from what the parents and near relatives leave behind, and for women is a share from what the parents and near relatives leave behind, whether the wealth (inheritance) is small or large; the share is a fixed one.

Islam gave women the right to a decent life, to education, to owning property, to marriage, to caring of children, to inheritance, to work and to social respect. There is no monasticism in Islam, no breaking away from social life, no difference between the mother and the father in obedience and reverence. ⁵⁷

Islam also gave them the right to further the cause of religion when the right opportunity presents itself. There are innumerable examples in Islamic history of such work having been successfully carried out by women. A notable example is that of Aisha , an extremely intelligent woman who was one of the Prophet Muhammad’s wives. Being much younger than he was, she lived about 50 years more than him, and, with her excellent, almost photographic memory, was able to continue to communicate in great detail everything that she had learned from him during their very close companionship, so that for about half a century she was able to fulfill a highly informative role. In short, she became a living recorder for the ummah. ‘Abdullah ibn Al-’Abbas, a companion of great stature, and one of the Quran’s best commentators, was one of Aisha’s students. ⁵⁸

Islam also gave woman the full right to manage her own finances, as well as the right to handle their legal matters on their own, the right to bring a suit against her husband or any other person before the court. The court recognizes her testimony, alone or accompanied, according to the testimony's arrangements. It also accepts her legal opinion, judgment and consultation. ⁵⁹ As Will Durant admits:

  ‘He placed woman on the same footing with man in legal processes and in financial independence; she might follow any legitimate profession, keep her earnings, inherit property, and dispose of her belongings at will. He abolished the Arab custom of transmitting women as property from father to son. Women were to inherit half as much as the male heirs, and were not to be disposed of against their will. ⁶⁰

Muslim women have made a rich contribution to the scientific, intellectual and literary movement, within the circle of the Islamic civilization. Throughout the different stages of Islamic history, thousands of distinguished and brilliant learned women excelled in the areas of science, the branches of knowledge and the fields of the Arab-Islamic culture. In his book, ‘Al-Isaba fi Tamyeez-is-Sahaba’, Ahmed bin Ali bin Hajar Al-Asqalani writes about the life of one 1543 women, among them scholars, preachers and women of letters, and so does Imam Al-Nawawi in, ‘Tahthib-ul-Asmae wal Lughat’, Al-Khatib Al-Baghdadi in his ‘Tarikh-e-Baghdad’, As-Sakhawi in ‘Addawu Al-lami Li Ahlil Qarni Attasi’, Omar Reda Kahala in ‘Muajamu Aalami Al-Nisae’, and many others who wrote biographies of learned women in religious jurisprudence, literature and poetry. ⁶¹

Children

Islam permits ritual practices related to childbirth. The foremost of these practices is whispering the call to prayer (Adhan) into the newborn’s right ear and the second call to prayer, (Iqama, or the Shahada) in its left ear. ⁶² Another is the Aqiqa rite, which involves animal sacrifice, shaving the infant’s head, and performing acts of charity. Usually one sheep, goat, or ram is sacrificed in thanksgiving for a girl (two for a boy) ⁶³ on the 7th day after birth. ⁶⁴ The act is believed to commemorate the near-sacrifice of Ishmael by his father, Abraham .

Islamic law exempts the mother of the newborn from fulfilling daily prayers and fasting while experiencing postpartum bleeding, but before she can resume her daily acts of worship, she is required to perform a complete bodily ablution to purify herself. In Islam, circumcision was a greatly celebrated rite of passage that usually occurred before a boy attained puberty. For most Muslim boys today, however, it is done in a clinic or hospital within a few days of birth. ⁶⁵

The mothers are told to breastfeed their child for at least two years so that the child becomes healthy. If the mother is unable to breastfeed the child, then Islam allows her to hire a mid-wife to feed the child. ⁶⁶ In this way, it was ensured that the child got the best nourishment.

If the parents of a child die, then Islam ensures that the orphans are treated well and their properties are secured by giving laws for their protection in the Holy Quran. The Quran instructs believers to do good to orphans as well as parents and others in need ⁶⁷ and it promises that those people who usurp the properties and rights of the orphans to be punished. ⁶⁸

Slaves

Since the earliest times, Islam has opened the doors to free slaves and to eventually eradicated slavery. The Islamic paradigm did not ignore the realities of the world, nor did it endorse it. Islam regulated it and dealt with it properly. As Annemarie Schimmel, a German scholar noted:

  ...therefore, slavery is theoretically doomed to disappear with the expansion of Islam. ⁶⁹

Islamic Law severely limited the channels in which the number of slaves could multiply. The only source of slavery was captives of legitimate war and the children born to slave parents. In case of war, the captives were not required to be enslaved. The Muslim scripture laid other options of dealing with them as well: Unconditional freedom and Ransom. ⁷⁰ After limiting the sources of new slaves, Islamic law dealt with the reality of the existing slaves.

The principle that human beings are born free and slavery is accidental is accepted by all the scholars of Islam. Voluntary slavery is not allowed and a free person cannot be enslaved. This was decided by the Prophet Muhammad , who declared it to be a sin 1400 years ago. He said:

  There are three types of people against whom I shall myself be a plaintiff on the Day of Judgement. Of these three, one is he who enslaves a free man, then sells him, and consumes this money. ⁷¹

Moreover, the prophetic teachings regarding slaves were: ‘Your slaves are your brothers! God has placed them in your care. So, whose brother is under his care, he should feed him what he eats and dress him how he dresses. And do not burden them beyond their capacities; but if you burden them (with an unbearable burden), then help them (by sharing their extra burden).' ⁷² He also said: ‘When the servant of anyone amongst you prepares food for him and has undergone its hardship of heat and smoke, he should make him (the servant) sit along with him and make him eat (along with him), and if he does not do that, then he should spare some portion for him.’ ⁷³

Slaves were at the same footing of a freeman in terms of religious obligations, as well as reward and punishment from God. A slave had right to personal belongings and property. Slaves were equal in retribution of blood-money.

Muslim slaves were educated and received military training as well, and even founded ruling dynasties in Egypt, India and Iran later on. ⁷⁴ A slave could also earn his freedom by making a deal with his owner. The owner and the slave would agree on a specific amount, and if the slave earned and gave that amount to the owner, he was legally set free. The process was known as ‘Mukatibat’ and is explained in the Holy Quran. ⁷⁵ The other process was known as tadbeer under which the slave could be set free on the death of the owner. However, Muslims freed slaves by simply purchasing them and setting them free in the name of God.

Concubines

Free sex-license and irresponsible behaviors are not overlooked by Islam as innocent past time or ordinary transgressions. Rather, they are acts which strike at the very roots of human society. Hence, Islam holds every form of extra matrimonial sex-relationships as sinful, forbidden (haram) and punishable under the criminal law. It prescribes severe punishments for the offenses so that such unsocial behavior may not become common. At the same time, it aims at purifying and purging the society of all activities which encourages such irresponsible actions or provide opportunities for them. ⁷⁶ Islam allowed the possession of concubines because they were a result of abnormal and special conditions such as war. ⁷⁷ These women had nowhere to go, and were completely helpless. So, when they were given in the custody of Muslims, they were given food, protection, clothing, shelter, and respect. Muslims were allowed to have intercourse with them as well but with several restrictions to save them from any sort of exploitation as it was generally found in other civilizations. The children from the womb of such women were treated the same way as the children from a properly wedded wife and that lady automatically went out from the category of a common slave and turned in to Umme Walad which had several privileges while comparing to a common slave. Some would marry their concubines after they would give birth to their child. ⁷⁸ Moreover, not all Muslims kept these concubines, most would emancipate them and then marry them. Such a practice is greatly adored and encouraged by Islam. ⁷⁹

Clothes

Islam has not fixed standard clothing for humans, however, there are some minimum requirements that must be met. The basic concept of Islamic ruling regarding clothing is that the clothes should not be revealing. The women are allowed to wear clothes as per their choice, provided that the clothes cover their entire body except their face, hands and feet. They are also required to cover their hair. Later on, due to the needs of the society, some scholars added that women should also wear a face veil for their security.

For men, the minimum amount to be covered on the body is between the navel and the knee. ⁸⁰ It should be noted, though, that a bare chest would be frowned upon in situations, hence if a person can afford, he should dress decently. Islam also guides that clothing must be loose enough so as not to outline or distinguish the shape of the body. Skin-tight, thin, body-hugging and torn clothes are discouraged for both men and women. When in public, some women wear a light cloak over their personal clothing as a convenient way to hide the curves of the body.

Prophet Muhammad predicted that in later times, people would be dressed, yet they would be naked. Scholars interpret that it refers to the fact, they would wear such thin and revealing clothes that their bodies would be, even the private parts would be visible. People who wear such clothing are at risk of sexual assaults and have been warned of painful punishments in the hereafter. ⁸¹

See-through clothes are not modest, for either men or women so, they need to be thick enough so that the color of the skin it covers is not visible, nor the shape of the body underneath. The overall appearance of a person should be dignified and modest. Islam encourages people to be proud of who they are. Muslims should look like Muslims and not like mere imitations of people of other faiths around them. Women should be proud of their femininity and not dress like men. And men should be proud of their masculinity and not try to imitate women in their dress. For this reason, Muslim men are forbidden from wearing gold or silk, as these are considered feminine accessories. ⁸²

Social Gatherings

One of the Islamic teachings and commands which, of course, is related to human psychology is healthy recreations and positive, constructive, lively and purposeful happiness. Hence, recreational activities are allowed in Islam as long as they do not go against the teachings of Quran and Sunnah.

Marriage

Family is a human social group whose members are bound together by blood ties or marital relationship. Marriage is recognized as the basis of society. Marriage as an institution leads to the uplift of man and is a mean for the continuance of the human race. Spouses are strictly enjoined to honor and love each other. Marriage though essentially a contract, is also a devotional act; its objects are rights of enjoyment and procreation of children and regulation of social life in the interest of society. The main object of a Muslim marriage is the preservation of human race, sanctioning thereby sexual relations between two members of the opposite sexes with a view to the preservation of the human species, the encouragement of chastity and the promotion of love and union between the husband and wife. It is a contract for the legalization of intercourse and procreation of children to satisfy all the biological needs in a respectful systematic way.

Marriage and the family are central focus in Islamic system. It is a commitment to life itself, to society and to the dignified, meaningful survival of human race. It is a commitment that married partners make to one another as well as to God. It is a kind of commitment in which they find mutual fulfillment and self-realization, love and peace, compassion and serenity, comfort and hope. All this is because marriage in Islam is regarded first and foremost as a righteous act, an act of responsible devotion. Sexual control is a moral triumph, whereas reproduction and social necessity or service, and a sound health are a gratifying test of mind. These values and purposes of marriage would take on a special meaning and be reinforced if they are intertwined with the idea of God. It would also conceive as religious commitment, and internalized as divine blessings. This seems to be the focal point of marriage in Islam. Islam encourages its adherents to marry. Marriage is from the ways of the prophets. The Prophet is reported to have said, marriage is essential for every Muslim who is physically fit and who could afford it, and those who were unable financially or due to other problems are instructed to fast. ⁸³ Furthermore, Prophet Muhammad said that Nikah is my Sunnah and one who dislikes my Sunnah is not mine. ⁸⁴ By marriage, one protects himself and the bride from committing adultery, and procreation of children. ⁸⁵

Unlike the females of other civilizations, the female in the Islamic civilization has the right to accept or reject marriage proposals. Her consent is prerequisite to the validity of the marital contract according to the Prophet’s teaching. It follows that if by arranged marriage is meant marrying the girl without her consent, then such a marriage is nullifiable if the girl wishes. Ibn Abbas reported that a girl came to the Messenger of God, Muhammad , and she reported that her father had forced her to marry without her consent. The Messenger of God gave her the choice … (between accepting the marriage or invalidating it). ⁸⁶

Marriage conditions include designating two spouses, and their consent. None of them should be forced to give his/her consent. ⁸⁷ A man can have maximum four wives unlike the kings and other statespersons of further civilizations who used to have 10, 20 or sometimes a greater number of wives. A man can have four wives at one time, but on condition that he is able to fulfill all the rights of all his wives equally. ⁸⁸ If he is unable to do so, then he is required to marry one woman only. On the other hand, women are allowed to marry one man only so that the lineage of the child remains clear. If she was allowed to keep four husbands at one time, then it would be extremely difficult to trace the lineage of the child with the right father.

Other essentials for marriage include the presence of witnesses and 'Wali' (guardian). Prophet Muhammad ﷺ is reported to have said: marriage is not valid without Sadaq (Mehr), Wali and Shahidain (Dower, Guardian and Witnesses respectively). ⁸⁹ Determination of dower is one of the most important requirements of a valid marriage. The dower given by husband is a Quranic duty towards wife. ^{90 91}

Marriage in Islam is simple and non-hectic. It does not burden the bride, the groom or their marriages. After getting the consent of the bride, the groom and their parents or wali, the groom offers to marry the bride (iejab) for a certain agreed upon dower (Mehr) in front of at least two sane Muslim adults, if the bride accepts (qubool) his offer, then the marriage is established. It can be done orally but for legal purposes, proper record is maintained. After this contract, a person recites Khutba which is a sunnah and then prays for the prosperous lives for the newly wedded couple. Then, if the parents or the relatives of the couple are able, they arrange a feast named ‘valima’ ⁹² to follow the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad . The Messenger of Allah himself provided a Valima after his marriages. He provided meat and bread on the occasion of his marriage with Zaynab binte Jahsh Hays (a type of sweat-dish cooked with dates, cheese & butter) on the occasion of his marriage with Safiyya and barley on another occasion. ⁹³ It is also reported in Hadith that the more one adds (to the number of guests) at the wedding feast the better, because that helps to announce the marriage more widely and increases the supplications for blessing of one’s family and wealth.

Cultural practices are concatenated with history, ethnicity, gender, literature, art and power relations. Therefore, the lifestyles embedded in these cultural settings can also resemble a diversity of such dynamics. ⁹⁴ Moreover, since marriage is a time for happiness, and celebration, people are allowed to indulge in merry activities provided that they stay away from the acts which are prohibited by God and His prophet .

Muslims can any marry any women except those which have been prohibited by the Holy Quran. The prohibited women are of two categories:

1. Women prohibited forever are: the mother, grandmother, great grandmother and her mother, daughter, grand daughter and her children, regardless of how high and down her position is in the lineage. The sisters, the maternal aunt, the paternal aunt, the brothers' daughters, the sister's daughters, the wife's mother, the wives' daughters, the father's wife, and the son's wife, are also prohibited. ⁹⁵ Furthermore, a man cannot marry two sisters at the same time. ⁹⁶ Suckling a baby establishes a foster kinship and is also an impediment to marriage in the same way as blood kinship is, therefore, marriage to foster brother, sister, etc. is also banned.
2. Temporarily forbidden woman for a certain period of time include:

• A woman in iddah as a result of divorce or the death of her husband.
• The wife who has been divorced cannot be remarried with the same husband unless she has married another man and got divorce from him. ⁹⁷
• A non-Muslim woman unless she accepts Islam ⁹⁸ or becomes the people of the Book i.e. Jews and Christians. ⁹⁹
• It is forbidden for a bondsman to marry his mistress, and so is it for a master to marry his bondswoman because he owns her. ^{100 101}

Divorce

Once a man and a woman are tied together in the sacred bonds of matrimony, they are expected to do their utmost, till the day they die to honor and uphold what the Holy Quran calls the firm contract or solemn pledge.

When a man and a woman live together as husband and wife, it is natural that they have their differences since they are quite different from each other. However, they can still live together through patience, tolerance, virtues advocated by the Holy Prophet . ¹⁰² Still, if some unpleasantness crops up and the couple finds that despite their best efforts, they are unable to live together, then Islam provides a very polite and courteous way of separation. This parting has been mentioned in the Holy Quran as Talaq as:

  الطَّلَاقُ مَرَّتَانِ فَإِمْسَاكٌ بِمَعْرُوفٍ أَوْ تَسْرِيحٌ بِإِحْسَانٍ وَلَا يَحِلُّ لَكُمْ أَنْ تَأْخُذُوا مِمَّا آتَيْتُمُوهُنَّ شَيْئًا إِلَّا أَنْ يَخَافَا أَلَّا يُقِيمَا حُدُودَ اللَّهِ فَإِنْ خِفْتُمْ أَلَّا يُقِيمَا حُدُودَ اللَّهِ فَلَا جُنَاحَ عَلَيْهِمَا فِيمَا افْتَدَتْ بِهِ تِلْكَ حُدُودُ اللَّهِ فَلَا تَعْتَدُوهَا وَمَنْ يَتَعَدَّ حُدُودَ اللَّهِ فَأُولَئِكَ هُمُ الظَّالِمُونَ 229 ¹⁰³

  This type of divorce is up to twice; the woman must then be retained on good terms or released with kindness; and it is not lawful for you to take back from women a part of what you have given them except when both fear that they may not be able to stay within the limits established by Allah; so if you fear that they may not be able to observe the limits of Allah, then it is no sin on them if the woman pays to get her release; these are the limits set by Allah, so do not exceed them; and those who transgress Allah’s limits are the unjust.

Divorce or Talaq is an abnormal event which takes place in an abnormal situation, but even in this most emotional matter, the Holy Quran commands the Muslims to be just and kind. Prophet Muhammad said that among the things which are allowed, divorce is the most disliked by God. ¹⁰⁴

In Islam, Men and women both have the right to take divorce. The appropriate procedure for divorce (for men), according to the Quran and Hadith, is that a person should pronounce one divorce outside the time of the wife's menstrual period. After the first divorce he may pronounce a second in the next clear period if he wants to, though it is preferable that he should confine himself to pronouncing the first. In this case the husband retains the right to revoke the divorce at any time before the lapse of the period of waiting ('iddah) even if the period of waiting has lapsed, the couple have the right to recontract the marriage by mutual consent. ¹⁰⁵ If the husband, however, pronounces divorce in his wife's third clear period, he has no right to revoke the divorce, and the spouses are not entitled to recontract the marriage. The pronouncing of triple divorce in one session is known as talaq mughallaza and is considered a highly condemnable act according to the law, and the Holy Prophet has strongly denounced it. ¹⁰⁶ Although this way of divorce is considered highly condemnable, the founders of the four legal schools consider it to have legal effect, with the result that such divorce, in their view, becomes absolutely irrevocable.

The divorce that comes into effect is irrevocable and brings separation into effect immediately. Since the woman has paid compensation, she has in effect purchased the right of repudiation and the husband, therefore, has ceased to have the right to revoke the divorce. ¹⁰⁷

Islam’s Condemnation of Infanticide

In pre-Islamic Arabia killing of female infants was very common. Islam not only prohibits female infanticide, but it forbids all types of infanticide, irrespective of whether the infant is a male or female. Islam is the only religion at that time which protested against this ferocity and protected the rights of every child and put an end to this barbaric practice. The Holy Quran states the conditions of the polytheists in the following manner:

  وَإِذَا بُشِّرَ أَحَدُهُمْ بِالْأُنْثَى ظَلَّ وَجْهُهُ مُسْوَدًّا وَهُوَ كَظِيمٌ 58 يَتَوَارَى مِنَ الْقَوْمِ مِنْ سُوءِ مَا بُشِّرَ بِهِ أَيُمْسِكُهُ عَلَى هُونٍ أَمْ يَدُسُّهُ فِي التُّرَابِ أَلَا سَاءَ مَا يَحْكُمُونَ 59 ¹⁰⁸

  And when one among of them receives the glad tidings of a daughter, his face turns black for the day, and he remains seething. Hiding from the people because of the evil of the tidings; “will he keep her with disgrace or bury her beneath the earth?” pay heed! Very evil is the judgment they impose.

A sane person needs to ponder that how the Holy Quran narrates the story about the birth of a girl. The words ‘glad tidings’ shows that how much girls were respected in Islam. Furthermore, the Holy Quran categorically told humankind not to kill their children due to fear of hunger or resources. ¹⁰⁹ It also informed them that God had taken the responsibility of providing sustenance upon himself. ¹¹⁰

Islam’s Condemnation of Prostitution

God created humans, and provided them with the guideline along with all the resources for their comfort. To fulfill the sexual need of humans, it provided them with the option of marriage. Marriage not only fulfills the sexual desire of humans, but also provides them with the comfort of children who become a source of emotional comfort as well. After providing humanity with suitable means to fulfil their needs and wishes, God prohibited men and women to indulge in illicit relations and adultery. Islam considers prostitution as one of the root causes for creating a nuisance in the society as it is an important tool for illicit relations and adultery. Opposite of this, Islam presents a very dignified and honorable relation between men and women in the form of Nikah and condemns adultery in any of its condition. Islam does not even allow an individual to go near to adultery and declares very strong punishment against it by saying:

  الزَّانِيَةُ وَالزَّانِي فَاجْلِدُوا كُلَّ وَاحِدٍ مِنْهُمَا مِائَةَ جَلْدَةٍ وَلَا تَأْخُذْكُمْ بِهِمَا رَأْفَةٌ فِي دِينِ اللَّهِ إِنْ كُنْتُمْ تُؤْمِنُونَ بِاللَّهِ وَالْيَوْمِ الْآخِرِ وَلْيَشْهَدْ عَذَابَهُمَا طَائِفَةٌ مِنَ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ 2 ¹¹¹

  Those who fornicate whether male or female – punish each one of them with a hundred lashes: and may you not have pity on them in the religion of Allah, if you believe in Allah and the last day: and a group of believers must witness their punishment.

The intensity of this punishment, and the punishment of adultery after marriage, portrays the severity of the crime. This punishment was not placed to torture the humans, but rather for their betterment and the betterment of the whole society. Such a punishment would ensure people’s refrainment from prostitution and other illicit relations. Secondly, when the people will refrain from adultery, the rights of people would not be violated, and hence a balanced society would be established.

Islam’s Condemnation of Homosexuality

The idea that human sexuality is all about intimacy and pleasure, and not about building a family system, is wrong. Secondly homosexuality itself is an un-natural animalistic act which only leads towards physical and social harm. Regarding homosexuality, the Holy Quran states:

  أَتَأْتُونَ الذُّكْرَانَ مِنَ الْعَالَمِينَ 165 وَتَذَرُونَ مَا خَلَقَ لَكُمْ رَبُّكُمْ مِنْ أَزْوَاجِكُمْ بَلْ أَنْتُمْ قَوْمٌ عَادُونَ 166 ¹¹²

  What! Among all the creatures, you commit the immoral acts with men? And leave the wives your lord has created for you? In fact, you are people who exceed limits.

In the exegesis of Quran, and other books of history, it is mentioned that the people who indulged in homosexuality were punished very severely, and their entire civilization was destroyed. Secondly, homosexuality has led people to an array of incurable and disgusting diseases like AIDs, and other sexual epidemic diseases. Thirdly, the natural order is that women are made for men, and it should remain that way. Otherwise societies will break down in to smaller groups, and immoral practices will become the standard of morality which will consequently lead to the destruction of the society. This is the reason why homosexuality is considered a magnanimous crime, and its consensual perpetrators are punishable by death.

On the whole, Islam is a religion of science and reason. It connects the faith of the believer to his scientific, moral, aesthetic, social and economic life. The Quran invites mankind to use their minds to explore the depths of their soul, to bring to light its hidden parts and to search into nature and history. ¹¹³ People’s orientation in religion is not uniform. Some people commit themselves to religion because they fear God; others do so because they love God; and there are also those who carry the label of religiosity because it gives them a sense of identity. Consequently, their orientation towards consumption practices and lifestyles vary according to their mode of religiosity. ¹¹⁴

Islamic religious and intellectual traditions which are based on the Holy Quran and the Ahadith, center on ritual observances and regulating boundaries of behavior for social harmony. The theology focuses on authoritative doctrine and guidance which connects the people with their Creator. Moreover, the all-encompassing teachings of Quran and Sunnah highlight the inner purification and cultivation of love which firstly unifies the individuals and helps in forming a peaceful and progressive society.

• ¹ Geoffrey Parrinder (1971), World Religions from Ancient History to the Present, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 462.
• ² Syed Hossein Serajzadeh (2002), Islam and Crime the Moral Community of Muslims, Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies, Lancaster University, Lancaster, U.K., Vol. 4, Pg. 111.
• ³ Authors of IESCO (2007), Cultural Strategy of the Islamic World, Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Rabat, Morocco, Pg. 84
• ⁴ Ali Akbar Jafari and Ahmet Suerdem (2012), An Analysis of Material Consumption Culture in the Muslim World, Sage Journals, London, U.K., Vol. 12, Issue: 1, Pg. 63.
• ⁵ Abul Qasim Ali bin Hasan ibn Asakir (1995), Tareekh-e-Damishq, Dar-ul-Fikar lil Taba’ati wa Nashar wa Tawz’i, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 1, Pg.40.
• ⁶ Ahmad bin Ali bin Hajar Al-Asqalani (1379 A.H.), Fath-ul-Bari Sharah Sahih Al-Bukhari, Dar-ul-M’arifa, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 7, Pg. 268.
• ⁷ Abu Bakr Ahmed bin Ali Al-Jassas Razi (1405 A.H.), Ahkam-ul-Quran, Dar Ihya-ut-Turath Al-Arabi, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 1, Pg. 249.
• ⁸ Thomas D. Jamaluddin (2001), Calendar Conversion Program Used to Analyze Early History of Islam, National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN), Bandung, Indonesia, Pg. 1.
• ⁹ Syed Fatima & Naimat U. Khan (2017), Business & Economic Review: Islamic Calendar Anomalies – Evidence from Pakistan, Institute of Management Sciences, Peshawer, Pakistan, Vol. 9, No. 3, Pg. 105.
• ¹⁰ Holy Quran, Al-Taubah (The Repentance) 9: 36
• ¹¹ Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail Al-Bukhari (1999), Sahih Bukhari, Hadith: 3197, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 532.
• ¹² Abul Fida Ismail Ibne Kathir (2009), Tafseere-ibne-Kathir, Dar-ul-Tayba lil Nashar wat Tawz’i, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Vol. 4, Pg. 146-147.
• ¹³ Holy Quran, Al-Taubah (The Repentance) 9: 71
• ¹⁴ Holy Quran, Al-Hujurat (The Chambers) 49: 13
• ¹⁵ Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 1
• ¹⁶ Holy Quran, Al-Ahzab (The Confederates) 33: 35
• ¹⁷ Holy Quran, Al-Hujurat, (The Chambers) 49: 13
• ¹⁸ The Quran, Al-Hujurat (The Chambers) 49: 10
• ¹⁹ Ahmed bin Muhammad Abu Abdullah Al-Shaibani (2001), Al-Musnad Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal, Moasisat-ur-Risala, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 38, Pg. 474.
• ²⁰ Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 21
• ²¹ Holy Quran, Bani Israel (The Descendants of Israel) 17: 23
• ²² Malik bin Anas Al-Asbuhi (1412 A.H.), Muwatta Imam Malik, Moasisat-ur-Risala, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 1, Pg. 393.
• ²³ Holy Quran, Al-Tehreem (The Forbiddance) 66: 6
• ²⁴ Holy Quran, Al-Rum (The Romans) 30: 21
• ²⁵ Holy Quran, Al-Noor (The Light) 24: 32
• ²⁶ Muhammad bin Yazeed Abu Abdullah Al-Qazweeni (2009), Sunan Ibne Majah, Hadith: 1845, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 330.
• ²⁷ Hammudah Abdal Ati (1995), The Family Structure in Islam, The American Trust Publications, Chicago, USA, Pg. 20.
• ²⁸ Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 34
• ²⁹ Muslim bin Al-Hajjaj Al-Neshapuri (2000), Sahih Muslim, Hadith: 2310, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 403.
• ³⁰ Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 35
• ³¹ Holy Quran, Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2: 187
• ³² Syed Abul A'ala Mawdudi (1996), Islamic Way of Life, Care Center for New Muslims, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 70.
• ³³ Abdullah bin ‘Abdul Rehman Abu Muhammad Al-Darmi (1993), Sahih Ibn Habban Bitarteeb Ibn Balban, Moasisat-ur-Risala, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 9, Pg. 364.
• ³⁴ The Quran, Al-Furqan (The Criterion) 25: 74
• ³⁵ Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 34
• ³⁶ Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 32
• ³⁷ Karim D. Crow (2012), Islam And Civilizational Renewal: In Search of ‘Islamic Lifestyle’, International Institute of Advanced Islamic Studies, Malaysia, Pg. 659.
• ³⁸ Holy Quran, Al-Ahzab (The Confederates) 33: 70
• ³⁹ Holy Quran, Aale-Imran (The Family of Imran) 3: 173
• ⁴⁰ Holy Quran, Al-Aaraf (The Heights) 7: 31
• ⁴¹ Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 135
• ⁴² Holy Quran, Az-Zumar (The Group) 39: 2
• ⁴³ Holy Quran, Al-Dahr (Time) 76: 8-9
• ⁴⁴ Holy Quran, Al-Furqan (The Criterion) 25: 63
• ⁴⁵ Holy Quran, Aale-Imran (The Family of Imran) 3: 145
• ⁴⁶ Holy Quran, Al-Noor (The Light) 24: 22
• ⁴⁷ Holy Quran, Al-Muddassir (The Cloaked One) 74: 4-5
• ⁴⁸ Holy Quran, Al-Noor (The Light) 24: 30-31
• ⁴⁹ Holy Quran, Al-Ahzab (The Confederates) 33: 35
• ⁵⁰ Ahmed bin Muhammad Abu Abdullah Al-Shaibani (2001), Al-Musnad Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal, Moasisat-ur-Risala, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 5, Pg. 247.
• ⁵¹ Holy Quran, Aale-Imran (The Family of Imran) 3: 195
• ⁵² Muhammad bin Yazeed Abu Abdullah Al-Qazweeni (2009), Sunan Ibne Majah, Hadith: 1903, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 341.
• ⁵³ Maulana Wahiduddin Khan (1994), Woman Between Islam and Western Society, The Islamic Centre, Delhi, India, Pg. 282.
• ⁵⁴ Dr. Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri (2009), Women in Islam and their Standing in the Muslim Society, The Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Rabat, Morocco, Pg. 9.
• ⁵⁵ Maulana Wahiduddin Khan (1994), Woman Between Islam and Western Society, The Islamic Centre, Delhi, India, Pg. 82.
• ⁵⁶ Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 7
• ⁵⁷ Dr. Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri (2009), Women in Islam and their Standing in the Muslim Society, The Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Rabat, Morocco, Pg. 11.
• ⁵⁸ Maulana Wahiduddin Khan (1994), Woman Between Islam and Western Society, The Islamic Centre, Delhi, India, Pg. 260.
• ⁵⁹ Dr. Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri (2009), Women in Islam and their Standing in the Muslim Society, The Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Rabat, Morocco, Pg. 18.
• ⁶⁰ Will Durant (1950), The Story of Civilization: The Age of Faith, Simon and Schuster, New York, USA, Pg. 180.
• ⁶¹ Dr. Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri (2009), Women in Islam and their Standing in the Muslim Society, The Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Rabat, Morocco, Pg. 19-20.
• ⁶² Muhammad bin Eisa Al-Tirmidhi (2009), Sunan At-Tirmizi, Hadith: 1514, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 481.
• ⁶³ Muhammad bin Eisa Al-Tirmidhi (2009), Sunan At-Tirmizi, Hadith: 1516, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 482.
• ⁶⁴ Ibid, Hadith: 1522, Pg. 483.
• ⁶⁵ Juan E. Campo (2009), Encyclopedia of Islam, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 105-106.
• ⁶⁶ Holy Quran, Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2: 233
• ⁶⁷ Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 36
• ⁶⁸ Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 10
• ⁶⁹ Annemarie Schimmel (1992), Islam An Introduction, State University of New York Press, New York, USA, Pg. 67.
• ⁷⁰ Holy Quran, Muhammad (The Holy Prophet) 47: 4
• ⁷¹ Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail Al-Bukhari (1999), Sahih Bukhari, Hadith: 2227, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 355.
• ⁷² Ibid, Hadith: 2545, Pg. 411.
• ⁷³ Muslim bin Al-Hajjaj Al-Neshapuri (2000), Sahih Muslim, Hadith: 4317, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 732.
• ⁷⁴ A. M. A. Shushtery (2006), Outlines of Islamic Culture, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf Publishers, Lahore, Pakistan, Pg. 486.
• ⁷⁵ Holy Quran, Al-Noor (The Light) 24: 33
• ⁷⁶ Syed Abul A'ala Mawdudi (1996), Islamic Way of Life, Care Center for New Muslims, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 67-68.
• ⁷⁷ A. M. A. Shushtery (2006), Outlines of Islamic Culture, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf Publishers, Lahore, Pakistan, Pg. 486.
• ⁷⁸ Holy Quran, Al-Maa’rij (The Pinnacles) 70: 29-31
• ⁷⁹ Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail Al-Bukhari (1999), Sahih Bukhari, Hadith: 3446, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 580.
• ⁸⁰ Abu-ul-Qasim Suleman bin Ahmed At-Tibrani (N.D.), Al-Mu’jam-ul-Awsat, Dar-ul-Haramain, Cairo, Egypt, Vol. 7, Pg. 372.
• ⁸¹ Muslim bin Al-Hajjaj Al-Neshapuri (2000), Sahih Muslim, Hadith: 5586, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 981
• ⁸² Ahmed bin Shoib bin Ali Ibn Sanan Nasai (1999), Sunan An-Nasai, Hadith: 5148, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 703.
• ⁸³ Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail Al-Bukhari (1999), Sahih Bukhari, Hadith: 5066, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 907.
• ⁸⁴ Muhammad bin Yazeed Abu Abdullah Al-Qazweeni (2009), Sunan Ibne Majah, Hadith: 1846, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 330.
• ⁸⁵ Dr. Meraj Ahmed Meraj (2018), The Importance of Marriage in Islam, International Journal of Research – Granthaalayah, Madhya Pardesh, India, Vol. 6, Issue: 11, Pg. 1-2.
• ⁸⁶ Muhammad bin Yazeed Abu Abdullah Al-Qazweeni (2009), Sunan Ibne Maja’, Hadith: 2096, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 422.
• ⁸⁷ Muhammad bin lbrahim Al-Tuwaijirym (2000), The Book of Nikah, King Fahd National Library Publication, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 9.
• ⁸⁸ Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 3
• ⁸⁹ Abu-ul-Qasim Suleman bin Ahmed At-Tibrani (N.D.), Al-Mu’jam-ul-Awsat, Dar-ul-Haramain, Cairo, Egypt, Vol. 11, Pg. 155.
• ⁹⁰ Dr. Mir Mohammad Azad (2018), Laws of Muslim Marriage from the Concept of the Holy Quran, International Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Jaipur, India, Vol. 5, Issue: 7, Pg. 31.
• ⁹¹ Holy Quran Al-Maidah (The Table Spread) 5: 5
• ⁹² Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail Al-Bukhari (1999), Sahih Bukhari, Hadith: 2048, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 328-329.
• ⁹³ Muslim bin Al-Hajja Al-Neshapuri (2000), Sahih Muslim, Hadith: 1428, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 604.
• ⁹⁴ Ali Akbar Jafari and Ahmet Suerdem (2012), An Analysis of Material Consumption Culture in the Muslim World, Sage Journals, London, U.K., Vol. 12, Issue: 1, Pg. 70-71
• ⁹⁵ Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 23
• ⁹⁶ Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail Al-Bukhari (1999), Sahih Bukhari, Hadith: 5109, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 914.
• ⁹⁷ Holy Quran, Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2: 235
• ⁹⁸ Holy Quran, Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2: 221
• ⁹⁹ Holy Quran, Al-Maidah (The Table Spread) 5: 5
• ¹⁰⁰ Abu Bakar Abdul Razzaq bin Humam Al-Sana’ani (1403 A.H.), Al-Musannaf, Al-Maktab-ul-Islami, Beirut, Lebanon, Vol. 7, Pg. 209.
• ¹⁰¹ Muhammad bin Ibrahim Al-Tuwaijirym (2000), The Book of Nikah, King Fahd National Library Publication, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 10-11.
• ¹⁰² Maulana Wahiduddin Khan (2010), Women in Islamic Shariah, Goodword Books, Delhi, India, Pg. 104-105.
• ¹⁰³ Holy Quran, Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2: 229
• ¹⁰⁴ Abu-Dawud Sulayman bin Al-Ash’as Al-Sajistani (2009), Sunan Abu Dawud, Hadith: 2178, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 440.
• ¹⁰⁵ Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismail Al-Bukhari (1999), Sahih Bukhari, Hadith: 5251, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 938.
• ¹⁰⁶ Ahmed bin Shoib bin Ali Ibn Sanan Nasai (1999), Sunan An-Nasai, Hadith: 3430, Darussalam, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 476.
• ¹⁰⁷ Syed Abul A'ala Mawdudi (1988), Towards Understanding the Quran (Translated By: Zafar Ishaq Ansari), The Islamic Foundation, Leicester, U.K., Vol. 1, Pg. 178-179.
• ¹⁰⁸ Holy Quran, An-Nahl (The Bee) 16: 58-59.
• ¹⁰⁹ The Holy Quran, Al Ana`am (The Cattle) 6: 151
• ¹¹⁰ The Holy Quran, Bani Israel (The Descendants of Israel) 17: 31
• ¹¹¹ Holy Quran, Al-Noor (The Light) 24: 2
• ¹¹² Holy Quran, Al-Shua’ra (The Poets) 26: 165-166.
• ¹¹³ Authors of IESCO (2007), Cultural Strategy of the Islamic World, Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Rabat, Morocco, Pg. 84.
• ¹¹⁴ Ali Akbar Jafari and Ahmet Suerdem (2012), An Analysis of Material Consumption Culture in the Muslim World, Sage Journals, London, U.K., Vol. 12, Issue: 1, Pg. 71.