Religious Rituals of Ancient India

In ancient India, religion was a way of life and was an integral part of their society. For most of the Indians, religion pervaded every aspect of life, from the normal daily chores to education, marriage and politics. India was also one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, with one of the most deeply religious societies. The only problem was that the collection of rituals and myths which these ancient Indians considered as religion was created by humans and were full of corrupt practices.

Temples

A Hindu temple is known as a Mandir. Although such shrines were usually dedicated to a central deity, other divinities were worshipped there as well (with the understanding that God manifested in various forms). ¹ From the 1st century CE a new type of worship known as Bhakti or devotional Hinduism spread across the Indian sub-continent, and the old Vedic gods were replaced in importance by deities like Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, Brahma, and Devi. These gods became the central figures of Hinduism and their worship required temples where the devoted could offer their thanks and reveal their hopes for a better life. Buildings were constructed which could house a sacred symbol of a particular god, which could be decorated with sculptural figures of them so recalling episodes from their mythological adventures, and which provided a space for worshippers to leave offerings and perform rituals such as bathing and dancing by professional female dancers (devadasi). The temple was considered the dwelling place of a particular god (devalaya). It was, therefore, a sacred place (tirtha) where heaven and earth met and, as a god’s home, it must be a suitably splendid palace (prasada). The needs of the god would, additionally, be supervised by a dedicated body of priests (pujaris) who attended the temple. ²

Pandit (Priest)

In Sanskrit pandita meant a learned one. A pandit was a scholar and/or a teacher, especially a Brahmin versed in Sanskrit and the different branches of sacred knowledge. The title pandit was given as a recognition of learning to those priestly Brahmins who had a reputation for Sanskritic learning and who were engaged in traditional ways of Sanskritic teaching and learning, especially the memorization and transfer of traditional knowledge. The appellation pandit was also in practice the title of respect given to priests and Brahmins of all kinds (whether learned or not), and to any person who had achieved excellence in any traditional field of learning or the arts (e.g. classical music, poetry and dance). ³

Pujari

In its most basic meaning, the word pujari denoted “one who does puja (worship).” In theory this word could refer to any worshiper, but in general usage the meaning was more restricted. It usually designated a man performing worship as his means of livelihood, either as a priest in a temple, or as a religious “technician” hired to perform ceremonies for others. ⁴

Sacred Women

Women, like sudras and untouchables, were traditionally ineligible to hear the recitation of the Veda. They were not invested with the sacred thread and had rarely exercised a priestly role. Women were seen as impure at the time of menstruation and childbirth and were not permitted to visit temples, take part in religious rites or prepare the family food. Death was particularly inauspicious for the woman whose husband died before her. Women did not make arrangements for funerals or perform the last rites (antim sanskara). Female ascetics left their families to seek god. Devadasis, dancers who served the gods of Hindu temples, were trained in the arts of dancing, singing and ritual. ⁵ These ‘female slaves of the idol’ were girls who had been dedicated to the temple service, often by their own parents. And they acted both as dancing girls and courtesans. ⁶ In the name of religion, these women were used as sexual objects. The common men were not allowed to touch them, but the priests would sleep with them whenever they liked, and would tell the girls that the sexual intercourse was done to gain the favor of god. Such was the level of hypocrisy.

Worship

Worship required an image of some kind, conceived as the presence of the deity. Image making was governed by a set of rules that determined the material, the way of the deity was to be represented, the paraphernalia given to it. A human-made image became a vessel for the presence of God through the act of consecration; either permanently or for the duration of the time of worship. Non-human-made images were those that had been found, usually revealed in a dream which did not need a special act of consecration. If an image suffered major damage, it could no longer serve as an object of worship. Hindu temples were primarily homes for the images of the gods, whose worship consisted in caring for the need of the deity by bathing, feeding, clothing and fanning it. Most Hindu homes kept images of gods and regular worship was performed before them. ⁷

Temple Worship

Rituals within the temples were performed by professional priests. The core ritual was puja, the worship of the murti. In puja, the deity was treated as a royal guest. The deity was bathed, adorned with clothing and garlands of flowers, and offered food and drink. When special portable images were carried in processions, the deities were shaded by umbrellas. Music and dance performances were offered for their entertainment. The priests made offerings of fruit, flowers, or coconuts to the deities. The last part of the ritual was the arati. ⁸ Arti or Arati was the act of worshipping a deity with light, and was an integral aspect of puja, Hindu worship. At the end of the puja rituals, the deities being worshipped were made an offering of light. One or more commonly five lights were placed on a tray, which was waved in a circular, clockwise motion in front of the deity. The five lights symbolized the five elements of earth, air, fire, water and ether. Together they represented the totality of the cosmos and everything in it. While the arti lights were being offered to the deity, the priest intones mantras appropriate for the particular god or goddess. He would also ring a small bell in an effort to gain the attention of the gods. Arti also referred to the prayers recited or sung during the waving of the arti lights. Each deity had his or her own prayer, which honored him or her and reminded the supplicant of his or her greatness. The arti ceremony marked the conclusion of the puja rituals, after the deities have been honored. It was at this time that the supplicants offered their prayers up through the medium of the arti flame.

After the gods and goddesses had been offered arti, the flame was brought round to all those present. The devotees passed their hands over the flames in a gesture that suggested that they were wafting the essence of the flame towards their head. In the same way that the flame was considered to take their prayers towards the gods, the motion of drawing the flame towards the devotees signified that they were taking the blessings of the divine from the flame. Therefore, to a certain extent, the arti flame represented the grace of the particular deity being worshipped. The devotees were then marked with a tilak, a mark between the eyes made of red kumkum or yellow sandal paste representing a third eye. In temples dedicated to Siva, the devotees were generally offered holy ash (vibhuti), which they smeared across their forehead in three horizontal stripes. If the arti ceremony had taken place at a temple the devotee would make a small donation of money to the priest, which was placed on the arti tray. The priest also distributed prasada, a further blessing (according to their understanding) from the deity, which consisted of a little of the offerings, usually flowers or fruit, that had previously been given to the deity and were subsequently returned as sacred food. ⁹

Domestic Worship

Domestic worship had many of the same attributes as the temple tradition. Each home had an area set aside for the household deities, either in a special room or on a shelf within a room. The household altar usually had several images because the members of the family may worship different deities. People had an ishtadevata, a “chosen deity,” with whom they had a special relationship. A family may have Shiva as its tutelary deity, but one brother’s wife may come from a family devoted to the goddess Durga and another brother may have been a devotee of Krishna. So, all three deities may be established on the family altar in the form of sculptures or pictures. Other deities with specific functions like Ganesha, the remover of obstacles, and Sarasvati, goddess of knowledge, may flank the main images. There may also be pictures of great saints. Nonrepresentational images like the Shiva lingam and the shalagrama stone, which bore the imprint of a fossilized fish that represents Vishnu, were common in homes.

Local gods and goddesses were often more prominent in domestic worship than Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi because many Hindus believed the latter was primarily concerned with the creation, preservation, and destruction of the cosmos, while regional deities cared for the daily concerns of people. These gods and goddesses were usually specific to a locale. Most villages had a protective divinity, usually a goddess. There were also specific deities linked to particular kinship groups. Because of their strong ties to the place and the people, these deities were actively concerned with the welfare of the community. They were petitioned for aid with weather and crops and are especially helpful with disease and fertility. ¹⁰

Worship of Tools

This was a rite traditionally performed on the festival of Dussehra by members of certain artisan groups. This festival had two different charter myths, both of which mark the triumph of good over evil. It was celebrated as the day that the god Rama slew the demon Ravana, and is also associated with the triumph of the Goddess over a demon named Mahishasura. For the artisans, such worship ritually marks the importance of their tools as a means to earn their livelihood, and such propitiation is also believed to guarantee success for the following year. ¹¹

Worship of Weapons

In earlier times, a common rite among the warrior classes on the festival of Dussehra (usually occurring within October and November) was the festival of worship of weapons which had two different charter myths, both of which mark the triumph of good over evil. It was celebrated as the day that the god Rama slew the demon Ravana, and was also associated with the triumph of the Goddess over a demon named Mahishasura. Given the martial tone of both charter myths, it was easy to see how it would be associated with soldiers and fighting, and thus this was considered a day to worship one’s weapons, as a symbol of the deity. According to popular Hindu belief, any endeavor begun on this festival day invariably succeeded, and for this reason, Dussehra has been a favored day to begin military campaigns. Since Dussehra came after the end of the monsoon rains, in which any travel was nearly impossible, this was a favorable time from a strategic perspective as well. ¹²

Ancestor Worship

According to Hinduism, the ancestors were semi-divine beings who received oblations and shared in the sacred Soma that so animated the god’s mythic actions. They bestowed beneficial gifts, heroes, and wealth and ensured the success of those among the living who venerate them. They were both the deified dead and the earliest and ancient Ancestors of the human race, but the distinction between the two was not always clear. Nor was the distinction between Ancestor and god. ¹³ Due to this belief, worship of the ancestors (pitris) was a tradition in India dating to Vedic times (c. 1500 B.C.) Traditionally, a man was expected to offer libations of oil and water to his deceased father, grandfather, and great-grandfather. The anniversary of the deaths of one’s mother and father must also be celebrated with formalities, including the offering of balls of rice to the ancestors. (Ancestors were presumed to be in heaven but must be fed by their progeny.) Funeral rituals always included a worship of ancestors with offerings of rice balls. Among five sacrificial rites that were enjoined daily for Brahmins, worshippers needed to sacrifice to the ancestors by ritually pouring out a glass of water to them. There was an inherent paradox in this practice. The very ancient Vedic rites assume that the departed had gone to a heavenly realm. However, such notions have long been superseded by the orthodox Hindu understanding that most departed souls will be reincarnated in a new form in this realm. ¹⁴

Lingam Worship

India, beyond all other countries on the face of the earth, was pre-eminently the home of the worship of the Phallus—the Linga puja; it has been so for ages and remains so still. This adoration is said to be one of the chiefs, if not the leading dogma of the Hindu religion, and there is scarcely a temple throughout the land which has not its Lingam, in many instances this symbol being the only form under which the deity of the sanctuary is worshipped.

Lingas were of all sizes and of various forms. Sometimes they are extremely minute, being then enclosed in small silver reliquaries and worn as amulets or charms upon the breast or arm. At other times they are several inches in height, as in the domestic examples, and often have the bull Nandi carved either at the end of the yoni (the vulva) or at the side of the emblem. The Hindus say that the bull will intercept the evil which is continually emitted from the female Sakti.

Upon the erection of a new village, in setting up the Linga, the people were careful to turn the spout of the yoni towards the jungle, and not upon the houses or roads, lest ill fortune should rest upon them. These Lingams were of a much larger size than those just mentioned, being generally two or three feet in height. Early in the morning girls were seen around these emblems who were anxious for husbands, sprinkling them with water from the Ganges; decking them with garlands of bilwa flowers; performing the mudra, ¹⁵ or gesticulation with the fingers, and while rubbing themselves against the emblem, reciting the prescribed incantations, and entreating the deity to make them the fruitful mother of children. ¹⁶ These types of rituals depicted nothing but the fulfilment of the carnal desire of humans and had nothing to do with religion.

Worship of Kamadeva

The Agni Purana describes number of pujas devoted to Kamadeva. These pujas were performed to attain particular desires, ranging from the birth of a child to increased prosperity to regaining the attention of a disaffected lover or spouse. Many of these rituals describe the use of pictures or figures of Kama and Rati along with music to invoke praise the deities. According to the texts, these devotions were performed for many reasons including health, progeny, a husband, happy married life, merit, and all desires. Several were more specific in their orientation, such as the vrata for prostitutes seeking better lives in their next rebirths.

This ritual was identified as the vrata of the gift to Kama-Ananga. In this ritual, Kama Deva was identified with Vishnu, but with also the Brahmin. The prostitute was to worship all the body parts of Visnu identified as Kama Deva, but she would also worship a Brahmin who has mastered the Vedas and was without any physical deformity, by giving him food and sexual enjoyment. Certain gifts should also be given to the Brahmin and his wife.

In other rituals to Kama, other men or gods took the place of Kama for women performing the rituals. For example, the Madana Festiva, which also began in the spring month of Caitra, instructed the woman doing the puja to worship her husband as the god of desire, satisfying him sexually as part of the devotion. This Bhavisya Purana promised that wherever this ritual was performed, the rains would come on time and prosperity would prevail indicating that the purpose of the ritual was to ensure fertility, for this woman offered the puja for herself and the earth. ¹⁷

Pilgrimage

One of the most popular Hindu religious activities was visiting the countless holy places that dot India’s landscape. Pilgrimages were undertaken to have certain rites, such as sraddha (the last rites), performed, to redeem vows or to gain merit. Hindu Sastras regulated pilgrimage by defining the mode of travel, the resolve to be undertaken, and the rituals to undergo. The more arduous the pilgrimage, the more meritorious it was deemed to be. ¹⁸ Many pilgrims visited shrines, rivers, sacred mountains, and sacred groves to obtain spiritual benefits; others went to achieve the worldly benefits that could also accrue from visiting a holy place. Women commonly vowed to visit the shrine of a certain saint or god in order to have a child, especially a son. Men visited a shrine and shaved their heads there in order to succeed at mundane things.

All sects in Hinduism did pilgrimage. Shaivites, Shaktas, and Vaishnavites alike had myriad important sites. Vaishnavites targeted the many places where Rama or Krishna visited or lived, as well as the many temples where other forms of Vishnu were enshrined. Mathura, Brindavan, and Dvaraka were particularly important for the devotees of Krishna, while Ayodhya was visited as the birthplace of Rama. Shaivites visited the many temples and shrines with Shiva Lingam, in addition to many other temples to Shiva that could be pilgrimage destinations. Shaktas or goddess worshippers had 53 shrines where parts of the goddess were said to have fallen when she was cut into pieces.

Among important pilgrimage cities were Gaya, Benares (Varanasi), Haridvar, and Ujjain. Important rivers are Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari, Narmada, and Cauvery. Perhaps the most significant pilgrimage site for Hindus was Benares. The primary aim of pilgrims in Benares was to bathe in the holy Ganges, which is said to confer heaven upon those who bathe in her. People nearing the end of their lives often go there, so that their ashes can be thrown into the river, and they can reach liberation from birth and rebirth. ¹⁹

Menstrual Rites

In Hindu mythology it is believed women got ‘Rajaswala Dosha’ (menstruation) when Lord Indra (the king of gods) severed the head of Vishwaroopacharya (the second teacher of the gods). Since Lord Indra killed a Brahmin he got ‘Brahmahatya dosha’. He got rid of it by distributing it amongst the prithvy (land), samudra (water), vriksha (tree) and stree (women folk). The women from that day on started menstruating every 28-30 days and got the ability to give birth. Hence, it’s believed that menstruation is a dosha. ²⁰

When a Hindu maiden reached maturity, she was kept in a dark room for four days, forbidden to see the sun, regarded unclean and untouchable, fed on boiled rice, sugar, curd and tamarind, and led to neighboring tank on the fifth day accompanied by five married women and smeared with turmeric water.

In the case of some higher castes also the menstrual rites held good value. Thus, the Rahri Brahmins of Bengal compelled a girl at puberty to live alone, and did not allow her to see the face of any male. For three days she remained shut up in a dark room and had to undergo some penances. She could not eat fish, flesh, egg or sweet meat and only had to live on rice and clarified butter. Among the Dehast Brahmins, the first menstruation of a girl was celebrated. The secluded girl sat on a little throne and was attended constantly by a Maratha maid servant. The neighbors and relatives paid visits, bringing presents for her and washed her in oil. The Aradhya Brahmins of Mysore observed the first menstruation with a ceremonial bath. The Dikishitar Brahmins of South India performed the first menstruation celebration with pomp and splendor. Similar rites were celebrated amongst other tribes of India as well. ²¹

During menstruation some women aren’t allowed to enter the kitchen and temples, sleep in the day-time, bathe, wear flowers, have sex, touch other males or females, talk loudly, and touch pickles. According to mythology a pickle touched by a menstruating woman rots away. The basil plant was considered to be holy in Hinduism; hence menstruating girls were not allowed to touch it. In some extreme cases they were not allowed to let even their shadow fall on it since it was believed that the plant would die. ²²

Ceremonial Defloration

Another form of puberty rite of the girls was ceremonial defloration which was closely connected with the menstrual rites. Defloration was the process through which maids were introduced in to womanhood. The defloration was done by a family priest known as Guruprasad. These customary rites were not codified due to the influence of patriarchy which demanded absolute chastity of women. Thus, in the law books the function of ritual defloration was entrusted to the husband. In the Grhyasutras there is a rite called Caturthikarma (rite on the fourth day after marriage) which was nothing but a rite of ceremonial defloration. The Grhyasutras explicitly say that on the fourth night the bridegroom must deflower the bride with the recital of a number of mantras. It was originally a puberty rite, but as the marriageable age of the girls came down, it appears that the right of Caturthukarma was discontinued and that the rite was performed long after the ritual of marriage and appropriately named Garbhadhana. There was another rite called Rtusangamana also called Niseka, as distinct from Garbhadhana which may be a relic of some older forms of ceremonial defloration on or before the commencement of the first menstruation. It is interesting to note that while performing the sexual act according to the rules prescribed in the Cathuthukarma, the husbands had to recite the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad which identified sexual union with sacrifice. ²³ Like other rituals, this ritual also depicts the fact that the priest satisfied his sexual desires by having sexual intercourse with every virgin of a family in the name of religion. Although it is given the name of a religious ritual, but it was nothing more than organized prostitution and the priestly class was nothing but a mafia who used to exploit the people religiously, morally, sexually and economically.

Sacrifice

The Vedism of the ancient Indies was, to an extent never elsewhere attained, a sacrificial religion connected with the deities Agni and Soma. Originally regarded as a feast for the gods, before whom food-offerings (cakes, milk, butter, meat, and the soma drink) were set on the holy grass before the altar; sacrifice gradually became a magical agency for influencing the gods, such as might be expressed in the Vedic proverb: "Here is the butter; where are thy gifts?" The Vedic sacrificial prayers expressed no spirit of humility or submission; even the word "thank" was unknown in the Vedic language. The gods thus sank to the level of mere servants of man, while the high-priests or Brahmins entrusted with the complicated rites gradually acquired an almost divine dignity. In their hands, the sacrificial ceremonial, developed to the extremist detail, became an irresistible power over the gods. A proverb says: ‘The sacrificer hunts Indra like game, and holds him fast as the fowler does the bird; the god is a wheel which the singer understands how to turn.’ The gods derived their whole might and power from the sacrifice as the condition of their existence, so that the Brahmins were indispensable for their continued existence. ²⁴

Human Sacrifice (Sati)

The term sati had various meanings, some state that the word sati comes from the root ‘sat’ which means the truth. ²⁵ Others state that it had three possible meanings. First, it could refer to the practice of a widow’s immolation on her husband’s funeral pyre. Second, sati can refer to the woman herself. In this sense, the term can be understood to be referring to a faithful and virtuous wife; her immolation along with her husband’s body is seen as a consequence of this devotion. Finally, Sati can refer to the Hindu goddess who sacrificed herself in response to a slight to her husband Shiva. ²⁶

Sati was the custom of a widow burning or self-immolation where a widow shared her husband’s funeral pyre upon his death. A sati could purify her husband’s deadliest sins by burning with him. Her reward would be to live happily with him in heaven. ²⁷ The act of sati was ritualized and became analogous to a wedding – bridal dress, procession and sacred fire – but with the vow at the beginning rather than the climax. It became analogous also to other forms of self-willed death: heroic warriors facing death in battle, servants who had pledged ultimate loyalty and yogis burying themselves alive. In addition, sati drew meaning from the Hindu religious idioms of sacrifice (yajna) and devotion (bhakti). Although the Vedic goals of life included longevity and natural death, self-willed death and sati developed in warrior (and some religious) circles. The first textual description of sati was by the Greek Diodorus, who described how the Indian general Ceteus, fighting in Asia Minor in 316 B.C., fell in battle and was cremated together with his two wives. The Mahabharata has several examples, but it was more common in texts by some medieval authorities who formally legitimated sati as long as rules prevailed. ²⁸ Such sacrifices were a disgrace to humanity and it is an insult to call it even a religious ritual.

Animal and Other Sacrifices

The actual offering of the sacrifices, which never took place without fire, took place either in the houses or in the open air. Among the various sacrifices, two were conspicuous; the soma offering and the sacrifice of the horse. The offering of the soma (Agnistoma) — a nectar obtained by the pressing of some plants — took place in the spring; the sacrifice lasted an entire day, and was a universal holiday for the people. The triple pressing of the soma, performed at certain intervals during the day, alternated with the offering of sacrificial cakes, libations of milk, and the sacrifice of eleven male goats to various gods. The gods (especially Indra) were eager for the intoxicating soma drink: "As the ox bellows after the rain, so does Indra desire the soma." The sacrifice of the horse (açvamedha), executed at the command of the king and participated in by the whole people, required a whole year's preparation.

It was the acme, "the king of the sacrifices", the solemnities lasting three days and being accompanied by all kinds of public amusements. The idea of this sacrifice was to provide the gods of light with another steed for their heavenly yoke. At first, instead of the sacrifice of the horse, human sacrifice seems to have been in vogue, so that here also the idea of substitution found expression. For the later Indians had a saying: ‘At first the gods indeed accepted men as sacrificial victims. Then the sacrificial efficacy passed from them to the horse. The horse thus became efficacious. They accepted the horse, but the sacrificial efficacy went to the steer, sheep, goat, and finally to rice and barley. Thus, for the instructed, a sacrificial cake made of rice and barley is of the same value as these (five) animals. ²⁹

Festivals

Hindu festivals, of more or less importance, were common allover ancient India. ³⁰ Hindus celebrated most festivals once each year. These were based on cycles of the moon, and the number of days in both months and years were different from what is found in the Gregorian calendar. Hindus regularly adjusted the year so that the months occurred during roughly the same season, but it was not possible to say that a Hindu festival, such as Holi, occurred on a specific Gregorian date. In this way, Hindu festivals were like the Jewish holiday ‘Passover’ and the Christian holiday ‘Easter’. The Hindu year generally began around either the spring or the fall equinox (when the day and night were of the same length). Each month was divided into a bright half or fortnight, which was the time between the new and the full moon, and a dark fortnight, between the full and the new moon.

The renowned expert on Hindu religious practice, P. V. Kane, identified more than 1,000 different Hindu festivals. Some were observed only in certain regions; others were observed throughout India. The observance of all-Indian festivals may, however, vary from place to place. Festivals generally combined elements of a fair or carnival with religious rituals. ³¹ The major ancient festivals were as follows:

Vasanta Panchami

Vasanta Panchami festival, literally “The ‘Fifth Day of the Moon’ in the springtime,” was celebrated on the fifth day of the bright half of the lunar month of Magha (January–February), the beginning of spring in India. ³² This day was considered sacred to the goddess Saraswati, patron deity of the arts, music, and learning. In her honor, celebrants sang songs in melodic modes (ragas) associated with spring. Given Saraswati’s connection with learning, this was also traditionally reckoned as the day on which young children should begin their studies. Vasant Panchami was also associated with Kama, the god of love, since the coming of spring brought the reappearance of flowering plants, with their scents and colors. This was supposedly the day that Kama attempted to instill erotic desire in the god Shiva’s heart, first by bringing spring to Mount Kailas, where Shiva was meditating, and then shooting Shiva with one of his flower arrows. Shiva awoke from his meditation, became angry at Kama, and reduced him to ashes with a burst of flame from his third eye. Despite being destroyed, in the end Kama was successful—after being awakened, Shiva became aware of Parvati’s ascetic practice and eventually became her husband. ³³

Vasant Panchami was a day to think about the person one loves, a spouse or a special friend. Hindus engaged in a variety of activities on this day. In recognition of Saraswati’s role as discoverer of writing, children might be taught to right their first words and some might rise in the early morning to bathe and then engage in the worship the Sun, Mother Ganga (the deity of the sacred river Ganges), and the earth. ³⁴

Holi

In Days of yore, there were communities of cannibals in India. They caused much havoc. They threatened the lives of many innocent people. One of them was Holika or Putana. She took immense delight in devouring children. ³⁵ Another account states that Holi was an ancient festival whose name is derived from Holika, the evil demon sister King of Hiranyakashipu. Legend recounts that Holika tricked the king’s son into sitting on a burning pyre as punishment for worshipping Lord Vishnu instead of his father. Through the intervention of Vishnu, the son was saved, and Holika was burned in his place. The Holi bonfire recalls the burning of Holika. Cooled bonfire ashes were traditionally applied to the forehead, and this in time gave way to the use of colored powder. In addition to celebrating the victory of good over evil, Holi was also associated with the divine love of Krishna and Radha. In agricultural terms, it marked the arrival of spring. ³⁶

Another legend has it that once upon a time, an old woman’s grandchild was to be sacrificed to a female demon named Holika. A Sadhu advised that abuse and foul language would subdue Holika. The old woman collected many children and made them abuse Holika in foul language. The demon fell dead on the ground and the children then made a bonfire of her remains.

Connected to this legend of the demon Holika is Bhakta Prahlad’s devotion to Lord Narayana, and his subsequent escape from death at the hands of Holika. Prahlad’s father, Hiranyakashipu, punished him in a variety of ways to change his devotional mind and make him worldly-minded. He failed in his attempts. At last he ordered his sister, Holika, who had a boon to remain unburnt even in fire, to take Prahlad on her lap and enter into the blazing flames. Holika did so. She vanished, but Prahlad remained untouched and laughing. He was not affected by the fire on account of the Grace of Lord Narayana.

This same scene is enacted every year to remind people that those who love god shall be saved, and they that torture the devotee of god shall be reduced to ashes. When Holika was burnt, people abused her and sang the glories of the Lord and of His great devotee, Prahlad. In imitation of that, people even today use abusive language, but unfortunately forget to sing the praises of the Lord and His devotee. ³⁷

In other places, the story of Krishna and Radha is central. The story goes that Krishna, a Hindu deity who is considered a manifestation of Vishnu, fell in love with the milkmaid Radha, but he was embarrassed that his skin was dark blue and hers fair. In order to rectify this, he playfully colored her face during a game with her and the other milkmaids. This is thought to be an origin of the colored water and powder throwing. The general merrymaking is also seen as characteristic of Krishna, who is known for his pranks and play. ³⁸

Holi is celebrated on the day of the full moon concluding the lunar month of Phalgun, which roughly synchronizes with March. ³⁹ On the day of Holi, people celebrate it by playing with colors, dancing and running in the streets. The dry powder colors were called "gulal," and once mixed with water, the colors were called "rang." Each color held a special meaning:

1. Red: symbolized fertility, love, beauty, and most importantly, a sign of a married woman.
2. Yellow: was almost synonymous with turmeric, an ingredient of great importance. Known for its antiseptic nature, it was used during auspicious functions and for medicinal use, such as for the treatment of inflammatory and digestive disorders.
3. Blue: was the color of Lord Krishna.
4. Green: symbolized new beginnings, harvest, and fertility.
5. Saffron: was associated with piety, and strength. ⁴⁰

The festival was also marked by the reversing of traditional social authority patterns; women were allowed to rebuke and insult their husbands, sometimes publicly in groups on the streets; students could be rude to their teachers and small children would often throw mud and even rubbish at adults passing by. The atmosphere was one of abandonment and gaiety but would easily become quite aggressive and competitive. ⁴¹

Deepavali/Diwali

Diwali has been known in the tradition by various names, the most well-known alternative being Deepavali, i.e. ‘a row of (oil) lamps’. Thus, Diwali is a festival of illumination. It could continue for about five days, though the core of the festival lasted for three days. These fell at the juncture of the lunar months of Asvina and Karttika (in the month of October) when the moon had completely waned at the end of the dark half of Asvina; the day of the new moon (called amavasya), and the first day of the bright half of Karttika are included. Thus, the darkness of amavasya sets the scene for the illuminations of the festival. ⁴² It was the most famous of Indian Festivals. It was a festival of jubilation and togetherness celebrated by the young and the old, rich and the poor throughout India. ⁴³ It was as important to Hindus as Christmas is to Christians and is essentially a celebration of the triumph of the light and goodness over darkness and evil. ⁴⁴

There are various alleged origins attributed to this festival. Some hold that they celebrate the marriage of Lakshmi with Lord Vishnu. In Bengal, the festival was dedicated to the worship of Kali. It also commemorates that blessed day on which the triumphant Lord Rama returned to Ayodhya after defeating Ravana. On this day also Sri Krishna killed the demon Narakasura. ⁴⁵ The legend of Narakasura is contained in the Bhagvata, the Kalika Purana, and other mythologies of the same period. According to these, Narakasura was a fearful demon dwelling in the country called Pragjyotisha, which some authorities identify with the western portion of modern Assam. This demon carried off the ear-rings of Aditi, the mother of the gods. The gods thereupon declared war against the demon, but were unable to make a stand against him, and so they appealed to Krishna for help.

Krishna fought with the demon, slew him, and brought back the stolen jewels in triumph. According to another version, which was more popular, Narakasura carried off the daughter of Vishwakarma, the architect of the gods, and insulted her. The demon had been a notorious kidnapper of girls, and he had been in the habit of seizing and carrying off any beautiful damsel that caught his fancy. In this way he had made for himself a prodigious harem of sixteen thousand mistresses. And now he began to cast profligate eyes on the daughters of the gods themselves. Nothing daunted the intrepid voluptuary; maidens, princesses, nymphs, goddesses were alike in dread of him. The women of both the upper and nether worlds, therefore, joined together in supplicating Vishnu to destroy the demon and restore the sanctity of female honour. But Narakasura, with all his weakness for the fair sex, was a demon of great piety, and had, by penance and meditation, accumulated such a rich store of spiritual merit that Vishnu was for a time not only unwilling but actually powerless to do him harm. But when the load of daily sins outweighed his previous store of virtue, Vishnu gave leave to Krishna to march upon his stronghold and put him to death. But since spiritual merit, once earned, can never be totally blotted out by any subsequent acts of sin, Narakasura was allowed to crave a boon at the moment of death, and the boon he asked for was that the day of his death might ever be commemorated as a day of feasting in the world. “Be it so,” said Krishna, and then with one blow of his sword he made an end of Narakasura and liberated his sixteen thousand imprisoned mistresses in one moment. ⁴⁶

On the first day of the festival, one makes an offering to the god of death, Yama, after praying for expiation of sins. One lights a lamp to “the underworld” where Yama lives. After feasting, rows of lamps are lighted in the evening on ledges and external places of houses. Temples and public places are also illuminated the same way. On the second day, Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, is worshipped; whereas in Bengal, Kali is worshipped instead. Lights are also lit on this day, when late at night, a huge racket is created with drums and such to drive away Alakshmi, Lakshmi’s (or Kali’s) inauspicious counterpart. In fact, by tradition every day of Divali is filled with the sounds of firecrackers.

The third day is devoted to the unusual worship of a demon, Bali, the demon king who was vanquished by Vishnu. One is to stay awake the whole night. On the day of Bali, it is common for people to gamble, since many believe that this was the day that Parvati defeated her husband, Shiva, in a game of dice. On this third day cows and bulls are also worshipped, as is a pile of food that represents the hill Govardhana, which Krishna lifted to protect his people from storm. People also pass under a rope of grass tied to a pole and tree in order to assure safe journeys. The final day is a brother and sister day, when brothers are invited to the homes of their sisters for feasting. ⁴⁷

Durga Puja

It is the Hindu festival held annually in September-October in honor of the goddess Durga. ⁴⁸ Durga Puja, popularly miscalled Dasehra, was one of the greatest of Hindu festivals. It was, as its name suggests, a festival of the Shaktas, or worshippers of Shakti, the conception of the divine attribute of power represented in female form, and regarded, in her most comprehensive character, as the living energy or force of nature—the mighty mother of the universe. ⁴⁹

This festival was observed twice a year, once in the month of Chaitra and then in Aswayuja. It lasted for nine days in honor of the nine manifestations of Durga. During Navaratri (the word literally means “nine nights”) devotees of Durga observed a fast. Brahmins were fed and prayers were offered for the protection of health and property. The beginning of summer and the beginning of winter were two very important junctions of climatic and solar influence. These two periods were taken as sacred opportunities for the worship of the Divine Mother. They were indicated respectively by the Rama-Navaratri in Chaitra (April-May) and the Durga Navaratri in Aswayuja (September-October). The bodies and minds of people underwent a considerable change on account of the changes in Nature. Sri Rama was worshipped during Ramnavmi, and Mother Durga during Navaratri. ⁵⁰

Grain seedlings, especially barley, were sprouted during the nine days of celebration as a manifestation of the Goddess. But the festival also had additional meanings that vary considerably from one region to another. It was considered a celebration of the goddess Durga’s triumph over the buffalo demon Mahisha. In keeping with the martial aspect of this goddess, soldiers and rulers used to worship their weapons and petition Durga for military success on the tenth day. Bengalis set up statues of Durga that became embodiments of the goddess’s presence during the ten days in which they were worshiped. While the goddess was present for her festival, she received animal sacrifices of goats, sheep, and even buffalo. When Navaratri came to an end, the images were divested of their divine status and immersed in water. ⁵¹

Rakshabandhan

The Raksabandhan festival known as Avani Avittam in South India, ⁵² and popularly called ‘Salono,’ was the full moon of Sravana, and thus occurred exactly ten days after Nag ‘Panchami. Salono’ is a corruption of the Persian term Sal-i-Nau, the new year;’ and it is a name given to the full moon of Sravana, because it marks the point of transition between the old and the new Fasli or agricultural year. The classic name, Raksha Bandhan, is derived from the principal ceremony of the day—the tying of an ornamental silk cord or cotton string round the wrist. This silk or cotton cord was called the ‘Raksha,’ because it was intended to serve as an amulet guarding the wearer from all kinds of evil. These sacred strings were usually dyed in yellow, the most auspicious color among the Hindus; but sometimes they were blazoned with a variety of gaudy colors and ornamented with tassels, to suit individual tastes.

Usually, it was the family priest who, after consecrating a bundle of Rakshas by offering them in worship to Vishnu, tied one round the wrist of every, member of his client’s family, more particularly the children and the principal earning members. But in Brahman households, the priest’s function was often performed by the head of the family who tied the Raksha round the wrists of his dependents with appropriate blessings. Among some Brahman communities, notably those of Gujarat, Raksha Bandhan was a festival in which the active part of the celebration was performed by females, who tied the sacred amulet round the wrists of their brothers and gave them or receive from them presents of cash and of clothing, accordingly brothers are younger or older than themselves—a ceremony analogous to Bhratri Dwitiya. ⁵³

Makara Sakranti

Makara Sakranti was a religious festival that falls on the day the sun made the transition (sankranti) into the zodiacal sign of Capricorn (makara). According to Western astrology, this occurred around December 20, but in Indian astrology (jyotisha), this occurred on January 14. This was one of the few celebrations in the festival year marked by the solar rather than the lunar calendar. On Makara Sankranti, the sun is reckoned as beginning its “northward journey” (uttarayana). Makara Sankranti was primarily a bathing (snana) festival; great numbers of people came to bathe in rivers on that day, especially the Ganges. The largest bathing festival on the Ganges was at Sagar Island in state of West Bengal (also known as Ganga Sagar), celebrated as the place where the Ganges emptied into the sea at the Bay of Bengal. ⁵⁴

Maha-shivaratri

Shivaratri was the Sanskrit word for the ‘Night of Shiva’ ⁵⁵ and it was the most important sectarian festival of the year for devotees of the Hindu god Shiva. The 14th day of the dark half of each lunar month was especially sacred to Shiva, but when it occurred in the month of Magha (January–February) and, to a lesser extent, in the month of Phalguna (February–March), it was a day of particular rejoicing. The preceding day the participant observed a fast and at night, a vigil during which a special worship of the lingam (symbol of Shiva) was performed. ⁵⁶ A three-tiered platform representing heaven space, and earth was built around a fire and on the heavenly tier, were placed 11 urns decorated with bilva leaves, mango, and coconuts representing the head of the three-eyed lord Shiva. Sincerely uttering the name of Shiva during Shivaratri is believed to free one from all sins. The temples were often crowded with women, for whom Shivaratri is considered especially auspicious. Married women prayed for the health and well-being of their husbands, while single women pray for a life partner as ideal as lord Shiva. ⁵⁷

Hindu New Year

The Hindu’s astronomical year was sidereal and was called Samvatsaradi (The first day of the year). This event generally fell on the 12^th of April and was considered a holy occasion by the Hindus. So, on New Year’s Day, the Manes and gods were propitiated by offerings to tarpana (oblations of water) and other allied ceremonies. In other respects, New Year’s Day was a day of feasting.

On New Year’s Day the elderly people (males and females) took a sacred bath in holy rivers or the sea, whichever happened to be nearest. The males propitiated the Manes and the deities; children appeared in their holiday dress and jewels. The nearest temple was attended and the god in it was worshipped. A sumptuous meal was cooked in every house, and poor relations were cordially invited to the feast. At evening time, the calendar of the New Year was read out and expounded by a holy Brahmin. Several people assembled to listen to this exposition. At the end of this ceremony, desserts were distributed. Sometimes, a short entertainment of music was also added to this ceremony. The whole day was spent more or less in mirth and festivity, and a light supper closed the day’s proceedings. ⁵⁸

Kumbh Mela

Kumbh Mela, also called Kumbha Mela, was a religious festival that was celebrated four times every 12 years. ⁵⁹ According to legend, various supernatural beings agreed to contribute to a common task of obtaining the nectar of immortality (called amrita). They gathered a pot of the sacred substance, but some demons decided to keep the amrita for themselves and tried to run away with it. The gods pursued the demons, and a battle ensued that lasted twelve days. During this battle, drops of amrita fell on four locations. Each of these four sites, located on the bank of a major rive, now hosts the Kumbh Mela festival that celebrates the battle of the gods for the pots of amrita.

The festival is marked by the presence of thousands of Hindu holy men and women designated by different names, such as monks, saints, and Sadhus. The holy people were also called tirthas, which means they are seen as contact points between earthly and divine realities. They would pick a spot from which to teach and conduct darshan, ⁶⁰ in which disciples gathered to sit in their teacher’s presence, during the early day of the festival.

The time of the Kumbh Mela included a mélange of religious activities, although the primary activity in which most people participate is a ritual bath that is to be taken on one specific day. At the specified day at the most auspicious hour, thousands of holy men from many Hindu sectarian groups took their ceremonial bath. Immediately thereafter the public did the same. ⁶¹

Death Ritual

At death, the family prepared the body of the deceased, carried it in a procession to the cremation grounds, and recited specific prayers while the body was cremated. The god of death was called upon to give the deceased a good place among the ancestors, and other deities were also invoked to intercede on behalf of the departed loved one. The god of fire was asked to carry the dead person safely to the realm of the ancestors. Once cremated, the ashes and bones of the deceased were either committed to a holy river or buried. Sadhus and small children were usually buried without cremation.

After the funeral, the family members went to a brook or river to purify themselves with ritual baths. Because of the death, the family was considered to be in a state of ritual impurity for a prescribed amount of time and had to limit interaction with others. The spirit of the dead person was a ghost for the first few days and needed to be fed in a ritual called shraddha until it moved on to the realm of the ancestors. This rite centered on offerings of nourishment and prayers for the welfare of deceased relatives. The eldest son offered the ghost water and balls of rice to cool the spirit after the cremation and gave it strength for its journey. Once the spirit moved on to the next world, the eldest son needed to perform the shraddha rite for his ancestors on the new moon day of each month for the first year after the death of his parents. After a year passed, the rite was performed annually. Because shraddha was the duty of the son, Hindus set great importance on the birth of a male child. Without a son to perform the shraddha rites, the deceased would be stuck as a ghost forever. ⁶²

Over all, prostitution, murder, cruelty, and means of economic and religious exploitation were given the names of religious rituals in ancient India. In the name of the Hindu religion, the common people always lost, whereas the priestly class always gained from these religious acts. Religion in ancient India was more of a commercial activity and was everything but a way to know the Creator and connect with Him. It was due to these beliefs and rituals that the whole society was divided into castes and was involved in vulgar activities. Families considered it an honor to have a priest deflower their young daughter. Others considered burning the wife with the husband as devotion. These things were nothing but pure evil, meant to destroy humanity which was and is the basic mission of the Devil. If something leads towards the fulfilment of personal greed and desire only, then it can never be religion. Religion always leads towards submission to the will of God and that message was given consistently by the divine messengers of Allah and the final form was presented by none other than Prophet Muhammad ﷺ.

• ¹ Steven J. Rosen (2006), Essential Hinduism, Praeger Publishers, London, U.K., Pg. 198.
• ² Ancient History Encyclopedia (Online): https://www.ancient.eu/Hindu_Architecture/: Retrieved: 29-03-2018
• ³ Denis Cush, Catherine Robinson & Michael York (2008), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Routledge, London, U.K., Pg. 587.
• ⁴ James G. Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, The Rosen Publishing Group Inc., New York, USA, Vol. 2, Pg. 530.
• ⁵ Denis Cush, Catherine Robinson & Michael York (2008), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Routledge, London, U.K., Pg. 683.
• ⁶ C. Staniland Wake (1888), Serpent-Worship and Other Essays, George Redway, London, U.K., Pg. 155.
• ⁷ Klaus K. Klostermmair (1998), A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Oneworld Publications, Oxford, U.K., Pg. 84.
• ⁸ Cybelle Shattuck (1999), Religions of the World: Hinduism, Routledge, London, U.K., Pg. 70.
• ⁹ Denis Cush, Catherine Robinson & Michael York (2008), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Routledge, London, U.K., Pg. 43.
• ¹⁰ Cybelle Shattuck (1999), Religions of the World: Hinduism, Routledge, London, U.K., Pg. 71-72.
• ¹¹ James G. Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, The Rosen Publishing Group Inc., New York, USA, Vol.2, Pg. 807.
• ¹² Ibid
• ¹³ Mathew R. Sayers (2013), Feeding the Dead: Ancestor Worship in India, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K., Pg. 25.
• ¹⁴ Constance A. Jones & James D. Ryan (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 36.
• ¹⁵ Mudra, originally ‘insignia or seal’ came to designate hand gestures in ritual, theatre and iconography. A mudra is a symbolic representation of some concrete object, abstract idea or action, which in some forms of ritual (especially in Tantrism) is part of an elaborate act of mimesis. Like mantra, to which it is closely connected in the ritual context, mudra has the power to make the sacred actively present. Ritual mudras are used for purification – of practitioner, site and offerings (a very simple example is snapping of the fingers to ward off potentially destructive demonic influences); also, as means of invoking the deity; and for presenting offerings, especially of an abstract or inner kind (such as the worshipper’s own self). Mudra has subsidiary meanings, deriving from its primary one as sign or symbol. It can signify the female partner of the tantric practitioner, who is the ‘seal’ or representative of the supreme Sakti, the Goddess. This is probably the original reason for the inclusion of mudra among the five Ms or pancmakara in tantric ‘circle worship’ (cakra puja) along with wine, meat, fish and sexual intercourse. (Denis Cush, Catherine Robinson & Michael York (2008), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Routledge, London, U.K.., Pg. 511.)
• ¹⁶ Hargrave Jennings (1891), Phallic Miscellanies: Facts and Phases of Ancient and Modern Sex Worship as Illustrated in the Religion of India, (Privately Printed), London, U.K.., Pg. 1-2.
• ¹⁷ Catherine Benton (2006), God of Desire: Tale of Kamadeva in Sanskrit Story Literature, State University of New York Press, New York, USA, Pg. 94-97.
• ¹⁸ Klaus K. Klostermmair (1998), A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Oneworld Publications, Oxford, U.K., Pg. 138.
• ¹⁹ Constance A. Jones & James D. Ryan (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 328-329.
• ²⁰ Aru Bartiya (2013), International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, IJSSH, Singapore, Vol. 3, Pg. 524.
• ²¹ Narendra Nath Bhattacharyya (1975), Ancient Indian Rituals and their Social Content, Manohar Book Service, Delhi, India, Pg. 91.
• ²² Aru Bartiya (2013), International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, IJSSH, Singapore, Vol. 3, Pg. 524.
• ²³ Narendra Nath Bhattacharyya (1975), Ancient Indian Rituals and their Social Content, Manohar Book Service, Delhi, India, Pg. 93-94
• ²⁴ The Catholic Encyclopedia (Online Version): http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13309a.htm: Retrieved: 28-03-2018
• ²⁵ Hindupedia (Online Version): http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Sati: Retrieved: 28-03-2018
• ²⁶ Constance L. Shehan (2016), The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Family Studies, John Wiley & Sons, Oxford, U.K., Vol. 3, Pg. 1723.
• ²⁷ Jodi O’Brien (2009), Encyclopedia of Gender and Society, Sage Publications, London, U.K., Vol. 1, Pg. 737.
• ²⁸ Denis Cush, Catherine Robinson & Michael York (2008), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Routledge, London, U.K., Pg. 770.
• ²⁹ The Catholic Encyclopedia (Online Version): http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13309a.htm: Retrieved: 28-03-2018
• ³⁰ Rev. A.D. Rowe (1881), Every Day life in India, American Tract Society, New York, USA, Pg. 159.
• ³¹ Robert S. Ellwood & Gregory D. Alles (1998), Encyclopedia of World Religions, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 158.
• ³² Constance A. Jones & James D. Ryan (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 479.
• ³³ James G. Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, The Rosen Publishing Group Inc., New York, USA, Vol. 2, Pg. 741-742.
• ³⁴ J. Gordon Melton (2011), Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations, ABC Clio, California, USA, Vol. 1, Pg. 903.
• ³⁵ Sri Swami Sivananda (2000), Hindu Fasts and Festivals, The Divine Life Society, Uttar Pradesh, India, Pg. 18.
• ³⁶ Paul Fieldhouse (2017), Food, Feasts and Faith: An Encyclopedia of Food Culture in World Religions, ABC Clio, California, USA, Vol.1, Pg. 271.
• ³⁷ Sri Swami Sivananda (2000), Hindu Fasts and Festivals, The Divine Life Society, Uttar Pradesh, India, Pg. 19.
• ³⁸ Encyclopedia Britannica (Online Version): https://www.britannica.com/story/holi-festival-of-colors: Retrieved: 22-03-2018
• ³⁹ Abhay Charan Mukherji (1918), Hindu Fasts and Feasts, The Indian Press, Allahabad, India, Pg. 45.
• ⁴⁰ Hindupedia (Online Version): http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Holi: Retrieved: 22-03-2018
• ⁴¹ Denis Cush, Catherine Robinson & Michael York (2008), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Routledge, London, U.K., Pg. 353.
• ⁴² Julius Lipner (1998), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Routledge, London, U.K., Pg. 243.
• ⁴³ Melissa Weiss Adamson & Francine Segan (2008), Entertaining from Ancient Rome to the Superbowl: An Encyclopedia, Greenwood Press, London, U.K., Vol. 1, Pg. 211.
• ⁴⁴ Paul Fieldhouse (2017), Food, Feasts and Faith: An Encyclopedia of Food Culture in World Religions, ABC Clio, California, USA, Vol. 1, Pg. 150.
• ⁴⁵ Sri Swami Sivananda (2000), Hindu Fasts and Festivals, The Divine Life Society, Uttar Pradesh, India, Pg. 3.
• ⁴⁶ Abhay Charan Mukherji (1918), Hindu Fasts and Feasts, The Indian Press, Allahabad, India, Pg. 154-156.
• ⁴⁷ Constance A. Jones & James D. Ryan (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 136.
• ⁴⁸ The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica (2006), Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., London, U.K., Pg. 582.
• ⁴⁹ Abhay Charan Mukherji (1918), Hindu Fasts and Feasts, The Indian Press, Allahabad, India, Pg. 133.
• ⁵⁰ Sri Swami Sivananda (2000), Hindu Fasts and Festivals, The Divine Life Society, Uttar Pradesh, India, Pg. 6.
• ⁵¹ Cybelle Shattuck (1999), Religions of the World: Hinduism, Routledge, London, U.K., Pg. 87.
• ⁵² Sri Swami Sivananda (2000), Hindu Fasts and Festivals, The Divine Life Society, Uttar Pradesh, India, Pg. 24.
• ⁵³ Abhay Charan Mukherji (1918), Hindu Fasts and Feasts, The Indian Press, Allahabad, India, Pg. 91-92.
• ⁵⁴ James G. Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, The Rosen Publishing Group Inc., New York, USA, Vol. 2, Pg. 411.
• ⁵⁵ Christian Roy (2005), Traditional Festivals: A Multicultural Encyclopedia, ABC Clio, California, USA, Vol. 1, Pg. 257.
• ⁵⁶ Encyclopedia Britannica (Online Version): https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maha-shivaratri: Retrieved: 27-03-2018
• ⁵⁷ Paul Fieldhouse (2017), Food, Feasts and Faith: An Encyclopedia of Food Culture in World Religions, ABC Clio, California, USA, Vol. 1, Pg. 348.
• ⁵⁸ John Murdoch (1904), Hindu and Muhammadan Festivals, Asian Educational Services, Madras, India, Pg. 51.
• ⁵⁹ Jacob E. Safra (2006), Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions, Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., London, U.K., Pg. 650.
• ⁶⁰ In Hinduism, darshan is a central practice, the practice of seeing the gods and being seen by them. This shared sight or glance is an exchange in which the devotee expresses his or her devotion to the god while the god blesses the devotee. When Hindus go to a temple, they go to ‘take darshan’ of the god enshrined within; similarly, when a Hindu buys a poster of a god and place in a home altar, he or she does so to be able to take darshan at home. (Eric Michael Mazur (2011), Encyclopedia of Religion and Film, ABC Clio, California, USA, Pg. 79)
• ⁶¹ J. Gordon Melton (2008), The Encyclopedia of Religious Phenomena, Visible Ink Press, Michigan, USA, Pg. 189-90.
• ⁶² Cybelle Shattuck (1999), Religions of the World: Hinduism, Routledge, London, U.K., Pg. 83-84.