Education of Ancient Persia

The ancient Persians paid a lot of attention to their military and other educational needs since they were repeatedly attacked by their neighbors. Like the Romans, the best education was kept out of reach of the ordinary and was provided to the elite only. This move ensured that the emperor or the ruler had complete control over the masses since an uneducated mass was no different than a flock of sheep. Keeping the masses uneducated did enable the emperor to maintain his control over the masses but proved disastrous at times of war and other problematic times.

During thousands of years, educational organizations kept evolving in ancient Persia. Children were fostered in the family, fire-temple or the royal court. During the Sasanian dynasty, universities were added as well. Although the Iranian kings paid attention to education, they did not make any official organization for ordinary people who had no free possibility for obtaining knowledge and therefore were deprived of the gift of education. Official education was the monopoly of aristocrats and nobles and their affiliates. This kind of school was founded in the royal court in which the children of aristocrats were brought up. ¹ Discovered friezes confirm that the ordinary people were deprived of education. ²

The information on education in the eastern satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire has been derived from the evidence of education for Babylonia and Egypt, where traditional educational systems continued under Persian rule. In both countries formal education was restricted to boys. Reading and writing, as well as some grammar, mathematics, and astronomy, were taught in scribal schools. In Achaemenid Babylonia, literacy was widespread among the non-Iranian population; scribes were numerous and included the sons of shepherds, fishermen, weavers, and the like. Many school texts have survived from Mesopotamia. They include Sumerian-Babylonian dictionaries, tablets with cuneiform signs, and collections of examples of grammatical usage and exercises. ³

Iran has been the most important country that had the priority in physical education and sports in its education system in the ancient era and among the eastern countries. According to manuscript written by historians and achieved works of ancient Iranians, sports like horse and chariot riding, shooting, fencing, wrestling, javelin throwing, gymnastics, boxing especially bat & hockey have more than 3000 years of history in Iran. The gym sport was one of the oldest sports of world which acceded to other countries with the Iranian’s name, sign, formalities, customs, language and characters. ⁴

Different Eras and Education

Historians have discussed two important eras in this regard in details because of their importance in understanding the differences of their education system which are as follows:

Mede Era

The kings of Mede dynasty had chronicles and diaries in which incidents and reports were recorded. Therefore, we can assume the manner of education in dynasty of Mede by Achamenian educational style. The history of fostering in Median communities was divided into two political and social phases; first phase began from the period of immigration, and second began from the time of sovereignty which continued until it was broken up by the Quraish. The second phase of education didn’t exceed the limitation of family and tribe. As the government was established, some new affairs emerged which caused the development of social foundations. Undoubtedly, the most important of them were such as: forming national alliance and equipping national army.

Achaemenian Era

To rule ancient Iran, the Achaemenians needed a powerful center and some talented and wise men. For this reason, they began to foster and instruct the children of nobles and aristocrats. So, educated men from such centers were sending people all over the country who maintained the arrangement and security of whole empire and this program was continued over the next periods. This might have been one of the reasons for the ancient Persian government to take interest in Education. Education in Achaemenian era had three dimensions: social, personal and vocational. ⁵

Important Factors of Education

The fostering factors of education were nature, geographical condition, opinions and traditions which were brought by Iranian and developed and improved by Zoroaster. The government became one of main factors when it was spreading its power and reign.

Government: As the royal governments were established and power transferred to one place and to one person, called king, the need for qualified and trusted men, who knew their responsibilities and practiced them, grew. So, the government in order to meet these requirements brought up some of the children from nobles and aristocrats. ⁶ Because of this and with regard to the necessity of doing such, a number of children of princes, elders, and grandees were trained for bureaucratic and administrative works. In fact, the government continuously controlled the people and education was in the hands of power holders.

Geographical Situation: Persia was almost a dry land, full of deserts and mountains which were largely devoid of plants and herbages. Due to lack of water and food, living and surviving in such a land required hardworking. So, ancient Iranians were diligent and painstaking people who tried their best to survive. However, and with regard to this fact that Iran is located in south part of Central Asia, this country was always threatened by its neighbors. Different permanent phyles (clans) and nomadic tribes, who lived around the country, constantly attacked Persia over food and livelihood and plundered all the annual efforts of its people. This led Iranian people to learn how to resist against these attacks and learn the methods and techniques of fighting and bravery. ⁷

Religion: As recommended by the Zoroaster, people needed to do their duties and tasks and move towards verity and efforts and endeavors in order to pave the way for ultimate triumph of truth and goodness in the world. On this basis, the Paragraph of Farvardin Yasht asserted that:

  ‘Lifetime was a constant struggle between the truth and lies, good and evil, beauty and ugliness.’ ⁸

Zoroastrian doctrine exerted a profound influence on early Iranian education. It taught that physical perfection was as important as mental. ⁹ Zoroaster taught religious education to people so that they could be vigilant and would not succumb to the forces of evil and that they could pay attention to the companions of Ahura Mazda. The companions of Ahura Mazda were those 6 Amesha Spenta or Holy Immortals including: Bahman (pure natured), Ordibehesht (best purity), Shavrivar (ideal kingship), Sepandarmaz (modesty), Khordad (happiness and health), Mordad (eternal life). Thus, it was a necessity for people to attain their moral qualities such as the characters of Ahura Mazda and always set Amesha Spenta and Amshaspandan and Ahura as their models.

Zoroastrian religion always encouraged people to learn and obtain knowledge to such an extent that in one part of books of Yashts in ‘Din Yasht’, there were a lot of references to ‘Chista’ as the goddess of science. Chista meant thinking, learning and knowledge. It was the name of the angel of science and knowledge. ¹⁰

Magian

Since the Zoroaster had recommended the Magian to honesty and verity in Holy Avesta, it can be concluded that it had a significant role in the education of their time because educating and training of special children was specific to the Magi. In fact, with the advent of Zoroaster, the responsibility for doing public religious affairs was entrusted to the Magi as per their beliefs. Zoroaster had always insisted on this point that the leaders must be those who are wise, experienced, knowledgeable and educated. Since public education was based mostly on religious issues in ancient Iran, the Zoroastrian clergymen (Magi) were responsible for education and training. These Magi were examples of good character and morals and were respected and admired in general. They were accustomed to study at night, learn the courses, and teach the basics of religious and moral lessons to their students. ¹¹

Aim of Education

In ancient Iran, the aim of education was to foster the children and to make them become a useful member of the society with good morality. The first aim was to convert self-interest into cooperation with others, to familiarize the children with their rights and also of other people’s rights, so that the children could respect these rights, as well as their ethnic pride. According to some documents, Persians, in their second aim, in addition to children’s bringing up paid attention to individual characteristics and they not only fostered the characteristics but also, taught the children something useful, in order that, more than formal education, children could pass their free times. The purpose of third aim was to prepare the members of aristocrats for high level and commanding jobs, nothing was done for education of low rank social groups. The supervision of clergy men was their own responsibility with no support from government. The vocation of father transferred to child and the knowledge of a teacher transferred to his pupil. ¹² Still, the people of ancient Iran were unable to become ideal citizens since this education was limited to the chosen few only.

Children Education

There were no formal schools for the Persians living during the Achaemenid period, and only the sons of the nobility received tutoring. ¹³ Greek sources provide some idea of typical Persian education. According to Herodotus, Persian boys were not allowed into the presence of their fathers until the age of 5 years; until then they lived among the women. From ages 5 to 20 years they were trained in horsemanship, archery, and telling the truth. Persians regarded lying as the worst of offenses, whereas prowess in arms was the mark of manliness. Xenophon wrote in Cyropaedia that until the age of 16 or 17, the sons of Persian nobles were brought up at the royal court, practicing riding, archery, throwing the spear and hunting. They were also instructed in justice, obedience, endurance and self-restraint. Clearly, apart from ethical guidance, the aim of Persian education was to produce efficient soldiers. ¹⁴

Secondly, the limitations of a rigid family structure and immobile class system served merely to strengthen the individual's relations to his family, to both his equals and superiors, and to the state itself. The personality of the child was decisively formed and he received his education more by practice than by instruction. Education advanced because the family accepted responsibility for child-rearing, the father participated in community games, the child performed religious duties, and the state took an interest in its youth. The state and home imposed such multitudinous duties on the citizen that he had to conform to the social order. All youths moved toward a common goal, determined by the integrated policies of the state, the community and the home, whose common underlying aim was basically that of "live and contribute to life." Like most strong kinship societies, ancient Persia patterned the child's life largely after that of the adult members of the family. Even the young child was expected to participate in the group and demonstrate his loyalty and pride in group activities. Family ties were not close, after the age of five other institutions took a more active role in educating the child. Yet, throughout his life the parents keenly felt their responsibility to develop a happy child and one who would contribute to his family and country. As the child grew older sources outside the home increasingly contributed to his education and citizenship training which made the child more materialistic. The religious tenets of Zoroastrianism provided a guiding moral philosophy and an authoritarian government instituted strict educational measures. ¹⁵

Two Elamite documents which date back to 499 B.C. show that Persian boys used to copy texts which means that they were learning cuneiform script which was only known to a few scribes as it was only used mainly for royal triumphal inscriptions. However, since nobles and highly placed Persian civil servants were illiterate, and writing played no part in standard Persian education. The Persians therefore used foreign scribes (writing chiefly in Aramaic) in the state chancery. ¹⁶

Character building was not neglected but proper attention was not paid to it as well. It is stated that moral training and the art of human relations received great stress. The boys in the agora also learned self-control with respect to food and drink. To tell a falsehood or to make an error in judgment brought lasting disgrace and shame. These traits were thoroughly inculcated in the youths by directing them to follow the actions of their elders and by housing them with their peers away from their own home and under the supervision of their masters. Thus, by repeating the essentials of daily life they formed correct habits, learned respect for their superiors and obedience to rules. Lessons in virtue were a daily practice: the boys listened to examples of virtuous behavior and cited reasons for what had been done, and in giving their own opinion they cited the judgments of others. But, since the elders were mostly corrupt themselves, the youth who followed them turned out to be the same way.

Through the process of socialization and training of youth, the state in old Iran exercised considerable power. It denied the individual from his natural rights and substituted instead a thorough program of indoctrination which emphasized physical fitness, loyalty, obedience and an unquestioning sense of duty to glorify the nation. Individualism, in the sense of the Greek city-state or its modern usage, did not prevail, for the system was essentially a social hierarchy based on seniority with authoritative, rather than lawful rule. Despite these short-comings, however, the cultural patterns persisted so strongly that there were instances when even the royal family dared not violate them. ¹⁷

Prayers and the holy doctrines of the priests were learned (doubtless from oral teaching) and somewhere about 15 years of age, the boys were invested with the holy girdle (made out of 72 threads of camel hair or wool and never laid aside day or night, as a protection against the Devas or evil spirits) with many ceremonies. On this occasion the young Persian, after reciting his confession of faith, took upon himself a vow to follow the law of Zoroaster. It was at the 15^th year that the boy was held to enter youth, that the family bands were relaxed, and that he became a servant of the State. In his 25th year, the youth was looked upon as a man and citizen, and was subject to all duties in peace and war, till his fiftieth. ¹⁸

Princes

The Persian princes were assigned at the age of 14 years to 4 eminent Persians, called respectively the wisest, most just, most temperate, and bravest, who tutored them in the worship of the gods, government, temperance, and courage respectively. Plutarch also mentioned a priest who taught ‘the wisdom of the Magi’ to Cyrus the Younger. ¹⁹

Military Training

One of the most important types of teachings for young people had been the physical education and military training. The major reason for this type of training was the geographical situation of Iran because the Iranians had been obliged to fight against the outsiders’ invasions. Furthermore, and regarding the need for robustness and abiding by the health of body and psyche of people, it seems that this type of training had been a must thereof. Thus, the ancient Iranian insisted on military education for their children because the illness had been attributed in the Zoroastrian religion. ²⁰

Physical development was just one aspect of socialization. Training for a vocation also prioritized. Little is known of this phase, but evidence indicates that from an early age the child spent his evenings in learning and preparing for a trade or a profession. Thus, the youth used part of his day for mastering his bows, his javelin and his horse, and the other part in gaining vocational skills. ²¹

Reading, Writing, and Calculating

Learning to read and write was limited to only a few specific classes and people. In the past, Iranian society had been a caste society and no one could ever enter into another class. In fact, the ancient Iranian believed that the child of a craftsman should always be a craftsman because he had inherited this talent from his father and thus would be more successful in this field. Thus, in the class system of that period, which was a caste society, nobody could move easily from craft or agricultural fields to army or justice class. Therefore, training had been limited to specific classes and individuals. Since such roles as commander of army, ruling, judgments, keeping legal and financial accounts and taxes had been the responsibilities of princes and the sons of nobles and Magian, therefore, only this group could be blessed by reading and writing ²² which shows that the educational system of the ancient Persians was prejudiced and the children of a lower class were deprived from these privileges.

Medical Education

Medicine among the Aryan tribes was one of the sciences that had been developed and improved about 3 centuries B.C. before most human tribes. It can be understood from the works remained from Zoroastrianism that Mazdiana-based medical educations were much more and much earlier available in the world as compared to other current schools of that time. On this basis, Jamshid (Thraetaona) was the inventor of medicine and Feraydoon (Thritta) was the first one who dealt with the treatment of patients. Medical science in the ancient Iran and especially among Achaemenians and Sasanids had been grown and developed in such a manner that they knew the diseases, methods of preparation and formulation of different pharmaceutical forms and their applications in treating the disease. On the other hand, they used the common methods at that time to supervise the professional performance of physicians, the relation between physicians and patients and their responsibilities towards government and society according to the governing rules and regulations of the society.

The physicians were educated theoretically and practically in the important educational centers of that time, i.e., Ray, Hamedan, Perspolis, Passargad etc. in the hospitals. Three groups of physicians graduated from those educational centers, divine healers who were in fact some type of psychiatrists, the group who used herbs to treat the patients, and official or legal physicians who were trusted by the government. Head of the physicians was assigned by the government and was responsible to supervise on the performance of other physicians. In addition to educational hospitals, there were also special hospitals for men and women in each city that offered therapeutic services. ²³

School Structure

Generally, home was the first place for education where the parents were the teachers. As the social foundations progressed and families concentrated, educational place accordingly was transferred to instructor’s home, which was the first gathering place for teaching. With magus dissemination, fire temples were applied as teaching centers. They preserved that rule for long time. In ancient time, educational centers in court were specified for princes and the sons of nobles and aristocrats, which government officials appeared from. These centers were located on a ground around which there were castles and government buildings. However, in Achamenian era, there were military schools which located in wide ground and roofless places. Other vocational centers had instructional work field, suitable to the sort of instruction. Until Sasanian era, the situation did not change. At Sassanian time, knowledge gained a revival, reaching its height and improved qualitatively and quantitatively especially in Raha and Nasiblin. The number of students studying was about 800. Rather than these two, there were technical and vocational school as well as science and philosophy schools which paved the way for famous Great and unique university of GandiShapoor. ²⁴

There were more advanced educational systems and especially, physical training systems in Achaemenid era (330 B.C.–55 B.C.) that caused Iranian achievement to growth and development stages. In this era, there was a great interest in war, hunting and shooting among Iranians and kinds of sports and games were prevalent among them. The Sassanid era was considered as an era looking sports and physical activity from angle of body dexterity and spirit relaxation. With the dawn of the Muslim Faith, kinds of sports were more developed and Islam emphasized on spreading sports including equestrian, shooting, fencing, wrestling, swimming and running. In Safavid’s Era, various sports like chess, wrestling, fencing, shooting, bat, track and field, acrobats and gymnastic had fully spread. Iranians did not look at sports as recreation and fun, but sports considered as kind of ethical rules and behavior, extension of moral, generosity, discretion, truthfulness and good behave virtues. ²⁵

The overall composition of ancient buildings in Iran centered on the use of two main spaces – the balcony and the dome chamber. Long balconies were used for circulation, as the main social artery of the building. These balconies were covered by annular barrel vaults. The square shaped dome chamber as a central space was an independent space used for several functions, such as teaching, training, debating and so on. These places could host a variety of educational performances and therefore useable for private of public events either by teachers or students. ²⁶

In these central and departmental schools, the students were also trained in shooting with the bow, riding and the use of the javelin, and other exercises; and in the course of this instruction great attention was paid to their education in truthfulness, justice and self-control. Noble deeds were recounted to them. They were rendered hardy by the severity of their exercise. The teachers and superintendents of the boys, it is said, were men above 50 years of age, who, by their example might be a pattern to the youth. Plato, in his Alcibiades speaks of the instruction of the sons of the kings in the wisdom of Zoroaster as well as in justice, temperance and courage. In the first book of the Anabasis Xenophon says of Cyrus the Younger, that ‘when he was receiving his education with his brother and the other youths, he was considered to surpass them all in everything.’ All the sons of the Persian nobles, he adds, are educated at the Royal palace, where they have an opportunity of learning many a lesson of virtuous conduct, but can see or hear nothing disgraceful. Here the boys see some honored by the king and others degraded-so that in their very childhood they learn to govern and to obey. Here Cyrus, first of all, showed himself most remarkable for modesty among those of his own age, and for paying more ready obedience to his elders, than even those who were inferior to him in position; and next he was noted for his fondness for horses and for managing them in a superior manner. They found him, too, very desirous of learning and most assiduous in practicing the war-like exercises of archery and hurling the javelin. ²⁷

Since no stable and long-lasting empire existed in ancient Persia, the educational system of the ancient Persians failed to develop and progress. Hence the existing system was faulty and could not ensure the survival and maintenance of a healthy society in their premises. Education was basically the need of every citizen, but was made a luxury and was only imparted to those who could afford it. Secondly, the rigidity of the class occupations also hindered creativity and growth. Moreover, detail about education of women was scarce, but since they were granted some freedom later on in the ages, it can be inferred that some sort of basic education was imparted to them as well but it must have only been elementary education, otherwise the historians would have mentioned it in detail.

• ¹ Abolghasem Farhang et. al (2012), Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business: Education in Ancient Iran, Institute of Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research, Kent, U.K., Vol. 4, No. 2, Pg. 1006-1007.
• ² Ibid.
• ³ Encyclopedia Iranica (Online Version): http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/education-i Retrieved: 07-02-2019
• ⁴ Mitra Rouhi, The Journal of American Science: Physical Education in Educational System of Ancient Iran, American Journal of Science, Connecticut, USA, Vol. 3, No. 3, Pg. 1.
• ⁵ Abolghasem Farhang et. al (2012), Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business: Education in Ancient Iran, Institute of Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research, Kent, U.K., Vol. 4, No. 2, Pg. 1006-1007.
• ⁶ Ibid, Pg. 1008-1009.
• ⁷ Zahra Behnamfar, Abbasali Maghsoodlou & Kobra Nodehi (2013), Journal of Novel Applied Sciences: Principles of Education in Ancient Iran with a Look at Yashts, Journal of Novel Applied Sciences, Sharjah, UAE, Pg. 1086-1087.
• ⁸ F. Max Muller (1993), The Sacred Books of The East: The Zend Avesta (Translated by James Darmesteter), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, India, Vol. 23, No. 135, Pg. 223.
• ⁹ A. Raza Arasteh (1962), Education and Social Awakening in Iran, Brill, Leiden, Netherlands, Pg. 1-5.
• ¹⁰ Zahra Behnamfar, Abbasali Maghsoodlou & Kobra Nodehi (2013), Journal of Novel Applied Sciences: Principles of Education in Ancient Iran with a Look at Yashts, Journal of Novel Applied Sciences, Sharjah, UAE, Pg. 1086-1088.
• ¹¹ Ibid.
• ¹² Abolghasem Farhang et. al (2012), Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business: Education in Ancient Iran, Institute of Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research, Kent, U.K., Vol. 4, No. 2, Pg. 1006-1009.
• ¹³ Neil D. Bramwell (2004), Ancient Persia, My Reportlinks.com Books, New Jersey, USA, Pg. 36.
• ¹⁴ Encyclopedia Iranica (Online Version): http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/education-i Retrieved: 07-02-2019
• ¹⁵ A. Raza Arasteh (1962), Education and Social Awakening in Iran, Brill, Leiden, Netherlands, Pg. 1-5.
• ¹⁶ Encyclopedia Iranica (Online Version): http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/education-i Retrieved: 07-02-2019
• ¹⁷ A. Raza Arasteh (1962), Education and Social Awakening in Iran, Brill, Leiden, Netherlands, Pg. 1-5.
• ¹⁸ S. S. Laurie (1894), The School Review, A Journal of Secondary Education: The History of Early Education, University of Chicago Press Journals, Chicago, USA, Vol. 2, No. 3, Pg. 137-139.
• ¹⁹ Encyclopedia Iranica (Online Version): http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/education-i Retrieved: 07-02-2019
• ²⁰ Zahra Behnamfar, Abbasali Maghsoodlou & Kobra Nodehi (2013), Journal of Novel Applied Sciences: Principles of Education in Ancient Iran with a Look at Yashts, Journal of Novel Applied Sciences, Sharjah, UAE, Pg. 1086-1088.
• ²¹ A. Raza Arasteh (1962), Education and Social Awakening in Iran, Brill, Leiden, Netherlands, Pg. 1-5.
• ²² Zahra Behnamfar, Abbasali Maghsoodlou & Kobra Nodehi (2013), Journal of Novel Applied Sciences: Principles of Education in Ancient Iran with a Look at Yashts, Journal of Novel Applied Sciences, Sharjah, UAE, Pg. 1086-1088.
• ²³ A. M. Taleb & Mohammad Reza Rajab Nejad (2014), History and Luminaries of Medical Education in Iran, Center for Info Bio Technology, Rajasthan, India, Pg. 1601.
• ²⁴ Abolghasem Farhang et. al (2012), Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business: Education in Ancient Iran, Institute of Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research, Kent, U.K., Vol. 4, No. 2, Pg. 1008-1009.
• ²⁵ Mitra Rouhi, The Journal of American Science: Physical Education in Educational System of Ancient Iran, American Journal of Science, Connecticut, USA, Vol. 3, No. 3, Pg. 1.
• ²⁶ Samaneh Irvani (2010), History of School Architecture, Published by The Author, Pg. 6, http://www.designshare.com/images/History_of_School_Architecture_in_Iran.pdf Retrieved: 07-02-2019
• ²⁷ S. S. Laurie (1894), The School Review, A Journal of Secondary Education: The History of Early Education, University of Chicago Press Journals, Chicago, USA, Vol. 2, No. 3, Pg. 137-139.