Educational System of Ancient India

In the early days, education began in India by teaching traditional elements such as Indian religion, mathematics, logic and philosophy at Hindu and Buddhist centers of learning such as Taxila and Nalanda. The initial education was imparted by the father and once the child reached an age of 5-12 (as per different castes) they took part in a special ceremony of initiation of knowledge and the formal learning process started. Each child went to a special guru or teacher who conveyed the teachings of the Vedas ¹ and other sciences to the child. For higher education, the young adult needed to travel sometimes far and wide so that he may be able to get the best education.

In those days, the standard of education was extremely low in India but women were sometimes allowed to attain education. Despite such scholarly intellectuals and enlightened people, the ancient Indians were not able to solve the basic enigmas of life i.e. who created us? Why were we sent to this world? Etc. It was due to this reason that even such learned personalities went astray and fell prey to their lust and thereby designed a manual which did manage to provide pleasure and enjoyment for a limited period of time, but was not able to provide eternal inner peace of mind and soul. These historical examples prove the limitations of even the most brilliant minds of this earth and their need for divine revelation.

According to the ancient Indians, education was the drawing out and training of inborn capacities and powers – brought over from former lives and developed in the Svargic or Deva World – which lay as germs in the Vijnanamaya kosha, the intellectual aspect of the re-incarnating Self, the triple faced jivatma or Atma-Buddhi-Manas. These germs which were ready to sprout forth and to grow, were to manifest through the Manomayakosha, which were sown in that stage of the consciousness which was called the Lower Manas, also known as Manomayakosha. The preparatory stage of re-incarnation began in which this kosha, the sheath of the mind and the emotions was formed; then followed the Pranamayakosha, that of passions and life-energy; and then the Annamayakosha, the sheath formed by food, the dense physical body. These three were new with each rebirth, and education did not only need to draw out and distribute the germs through each sheath, but to develop and train them, and make the sheath sensitive and responsive to the impacts from the external world, accurate in recording them, and in sending them on to the mind, which connected the impression with the object causing it, and thus established relation between itself and the outer world. These relations and the action of the mind upon them were known as Knowledge. Observation by the sense-organs in the physical body and the effects of these on the sense-centers was known as sensations; the perception by and the action of the mind on these by memory were known as analysis. Comparison, classification, inter-relations (causes and effects), reasoning on them and anticipation, all these formed the field of Knowledge which was tilled by Education. ²

The ancient Indians believed that there were four ashramas, four stages in life. The first was that of a student. The student’s first teachers were the parents, and then formal education began when the child was sent to study with a professional teacher who tailored the education to fit the family’s social status. ³ The object of the ancient Indian system of education was the formation of character, the building up of personality, the preservation of ancient culture and the training of the rising generation in the performance of the social and religious duties ⁴ as it generally happens everywhere.

In the ancient system of India, education and culture were self-controlled, and while the state, the organized nation, profited by them and from them drew its dignity, its religion, its morality, its effectiveness and its consequent efficiency, the legislative and executive departments did not exercise any control over them and did not interfere with their management. Kings built universities and bestowed on them wealth, but claimed no authority. ⁵

The ancient Hindu society was divided in to four castes: The Brahmins, or priests: this class also furnished all teachers, and controlled all legislation; the Kshatriyas, the warrior, or military executive class; the Vaisyas, or industrial class; the Sudras, or servile class. Altogether outside of the Brahminical social organization were the pariahs, or outcast’s element with an overwhelming pre-Aryan population.

The elaborate literary education was reserved for the Brahmins. All members of this class were supposed to acquire a most minute knowledge of the sacred writings, and a general knowledge of the literature and the philosophical beliefs of the Hindus. Through this knowledge of religious writings and approved forms of conduct, the literary priestly class became the ruling class politically as well as socially and religiously. Theoretically, every member of the group devoted his life to such studies and to the appropriate accompanying activities. Practically, it was possible only for the most devout to follow the life of literary study and philosophical reflection. This literary ruling class in India differed markedly from that in china not only because membership was unattainable by any of lower-class origin, but because, on account of its religious character, the enjoyment of the privileges of this life carried with it practically no obligation of immediate service to the community. ⁶

The Brahmins were the group in ancient Indian society with obligatory formal education and with an intellectual tradition. Twelve celibate years in the service of some preceptor (guru) in an isolated brahminical grove were considered necessary for the acolyte to master Veda, grammar, and ritual. The sacred books had to be memorized without error of a single syllable or of as much as a tone-accent; yet the Vedas were not committed to writing. This learning by rote and method of training resembled that of the Druids in Caesar's Gaul, but on a higher level of mental achievement. ⁷

The sudras were explicitly excluded from Veda study, and Veda study was intentionally interrupted whenever a sudra came within earshot. Severe penalties were imposed on sudras who intentionally listened to Vedic chanting or memorized and chanted Vedic texts themselves. ⁸ The Sudras and pariahs received no formal education at all. The members of the warrior and industrial classes had access to the literary schools kept by the members of the higher class, but never availed these privileges themselves to any great extent. A knowledge of certain portions of the sacred texts, chiefly the ceremonial, and a memorizing of briefer portions was the extent of the education gained by the members of these castes. A training of a practical and professional nature was gained through the traditions and the customs of the home and of the village community. These two institutions were in reality the schools. But neither in the schools of the Brahmins nor in the home or the village community did instruction in reading and writing form a part of the education gained by most of the members of these castes. In a caste system, where the child followed the occupation of the parent, the necessary training was provided automatically by a universal system of apprenticeship. Training was not only provided in handicrafts but also in other subjects such as arithmetic, which resulted from the apprenticeship training given chiefly in the family. ⁹

Schools

In ancient India, education was for a long time imparted by private teachers on their responsibility. These teachers were scattered all over the country, but they used to congregate in large numbers in certain places on account of the facilities they received there in their work. Such places were usually capitals of kingdoms or famous holy places. Kings and feudal chiefs were as a rule patron of learning, so learned Brahmans were naturally attracted to their courts. It was this circumstance that made cities like Taxila, Pataliputra, Kanauj, Mithila and Dhara in northern India and Malkhed, Kalyani and Tanjore in southern India famous centers of education. Since ancient times, holy places have been immemorial famous centers of learning. The pilgrim traffic also supplied a subsidiary source of income to the famous teachers residing there. ¹⁰

According to the system prevalent in ancient India, primary education was instructed to children up to the age of eight and secondary education covered from eight to twelve years more. ¹¹ Primary schools, in the modern sense, probably did not exist in the earliest times but Lalita Vistara discussed with references that schools for elementary education did exist at the time of Buddha (6^th century B.C.), who followed the usual custom of the world and went to 'the writing school' to practice well all figures, writings, calculation and everything he had already learnt and 'to train numerous children in the foremost path, and to bring other millions to the path of truth.' Thus, it appears that such schools furnished the rudiments of the arts of reading, writing and arithmetic together with moral precepts.

The schools for elementary education, in general, used to be held under the trees in the open air or during bad weather, under covered sheds. It is interesting to note here that a modern system of teaching the letters of the alphabet was also then known, as the teacher then taught each of them in association with a sentence beginning with the letter. ¹²

Elementary Education

Before the start of the education of boys, there were many things which they learned in childhood. ¹³ As they grew beyond infancy, children increasingly took part in the life of the joint family—cementing a feeling of stable and secure but also sometimes stifling relations. The structure of a joint family did not tolerate nuclear cells within; the child's father was thus discouraged from showing special affection for his own son who needed to develop equally close ties also with his father's brothers. The typically distant father was more an onlooker than an ally in the son's struggle to develop his autonomy and loosen the dependence on the mother who sheltered him for so long. This dependency on the mother hence remained strong throughout his life, and the absence of a partisan father with whom the boy could have bonded and identified lead instead to a submissive attitude to elder men and authority figures in general. Children sit in (or walk through) family gatherings or caste meetings, learn respect and obedience and inhale their specific prejudices. They learned from repeated examples of older men's sayings, from songs at festivities and sermons at temples, and from recitations of the epics and puranas. ¹⁴ Then at age five and as a prerequisite for studying the Vedas, a child performed vidyarambha, signifying ‘beginning of knowledge’. In a ceremony commonly held at temples, Vijayadasami day and under the supervision of a priest, the children wrote spiritual mantras in a bed of rice. ¹⁵ The Kshatriya boys had this ceremony at the age of 11, and the Vaishya boys at the age of 12. ¹⁶

Higher Education

Higher schools for the study of religious works and practices were held at the courts of enlightened and learned kings like those of the Videhas, the Kasis, the Kurus and the Panchalas. The subjects taught in these schools included both secular and spiritual subjects. In the earliest stage, both the branches were taught by the Diksha Guru or the boy's spiritual guide. But the office of the tutor, later on, became differentiated into those of the Diksha Guru and Siksha Guru. The former initiated the pupil in the secrets of religion, while the latter took charge of all the secular subjects. The sacred laws which also formed a part of the curriculum of these schools included not only the precepts for the moral duties of all Aryas but also the special rules regarding the conduct of kings and the administration of justice. As long as the various angas consisted of short simple treatises, there existed only one type of schools called the Vedic Schools.

But as the materials for each of these subjects accumulated and the method of their treatment was perfected, the Vedic Schools became differentiated into the Vedic Schools and the Special Schools of Science. The members of the former devoted their energy only to get a full and accurate knowledge of the sacred texts but took very little care to understand the subject-matter, so that they became 'living libraries' but without any power to make any real use of their learning while their rivals, though they restricted their learning to only a few branches of science, taught their curriculum thoroughly and intelligently. So, in time, the Vedic schools ceased to be the centers of intellectual, and were supplanted by the special, schools of science. The curriculum of these schools included the science of the sacrifice, grammar, law or astronomy. Again, in course of time there developed by the side of these a class of institutions called Special Law Schools which gave a thorough training in the different duties of men.

The most important seats of learning, however, were the Parishads or Brahmanic Colleges. These were originally conducted by three Brahmins, but the number gradually increased till it was settled that a Parishad ought to consist of 21 Brahmins well versed in Philosophy, Theology and Law. ¹⁷ During the whole course at school, as at college, the student had to observe brahmacharya—that is, wearing simple dress, living on plain food, using a hard bed, and leading a celibate life. ¹⁸

Universities

In the 6th century B.C., the chief center of learning seemed to have been transferred to Taxila. It was the headquarters of Brahmanical learning. It is said that sixteen branches of learning were taught here in the different schools; each of which was presided over by a special professor. There were schools of painting, sculpture, image making and handicrafts at Taxila. The grammarian Panini and Kautliya Chanakya, the minister of Chandra Gupta is said to have had their education in this university. The student here had to pay for his/ her education. ¹⁹

These institutions took students to the end of the knowledge of some particular subjects taking it up from the secondary stage which the student had already finished elsewhere before joining these institutions. The process of education which began at home with primary education and widened in extent in the education in the Asramas which imparted what corresponded to secondary education reached its culmination in these places which imparted education at the university level.

The students who came to learn in ancient Indian universities were approximately sixteen to twenty years of age. Taxila was so well known for its teachers that hundreds of students went to this place in search of knowledge, leaving aside the comforts and safety of their home. Their parents' sacrifice in sending them to this place was indeed great, particularly when one takes into consideration the risk involved in long journeys in those days when travel was slow, dangerous and uncertain. ²⁰

Student Life

The precise nature of lodging and boarding arrangements for students in ancient days is not well-known. But it seems that the students led a simple life. Some students stayed in the house of the teachers and others were fed by the rich people of the town. There were instances when the good relations between the teacher and the disciple led to matrimonial connections.

There were holidays when the school was closed. External causes were responsible for frequent stopping of the work. Abnormal conditions giving rise to untimely clouds, thunder, lightning, heavy showers, frost, dust-storms, eclipse of the sun or the moon were instrumental in bringing about suspension of work. The studies were discontinued when the peace of the settlement was disturbed by fight between two armies or villages, or if there was a wrestling competition or if the local leader died. Then such trivial causes as the killing of a mouse by a cat, or the chance appearance of an egg on the road or the birth of a child in the locality, where the school was situated, brought about a suspension of school work which shows that even their educated elite believed in such trivial superstitions.

It is also said that the students were generously received when they returned home after completing their studies. The books of their historic writers’ state that when Rakkhia returned from padaliputta, he was given a rousing reception by the state. The city was decorated with flags and banners etc. ²¹

Subjects Taught

Learning of the meaning of the Vedas was an integral part of the prescription of study. It was not merely the Vedic texts which were included in the study; the student also had to learn the texts of Yajurveda and the Samaveda, subjects like Vakosvakya, Itihasa and Purana. ²² The following curriculum of study comprising the Vedic branches of learning which are recorded in the books of history: Riuvveya, Jauvveya, Samaveya, Athavvanaveya, Itrhasa (Purana), the fifth Veda, Nighantu, the sixth Veda; six Veangas comprising sankhana (arithmetic), sikkhd (phonetics), kappa (ritual), vagarana (grammar), chanda (meter), mrutta (exegesis), and joisa (astronomy-astrology); six Upangas, which comprised further elaborations of the subjects dealt within the Vedangas and Satthitanta, which was an authoritative treatise on the Samkhya School. The Uttaradhyayana commentary mentions around the fourteen subjects of study. ²³ Regarding the subjects which needed to be learned, the Satapatha Brahmana states:

  ‘And for him who knowing this studies day by day the dialogue, then mythologies and ancient legends as what has been prescribed for his own study (the gods) etc., are pleased.’ ²⁴

While explaining this, Manu mentions fourteen subjects of study as: The four Vedas and the six accessories thereto, Mimainsa (exegesis) logic, ancient legends, moral science: It has also been prescribed that the Vedas should be studied along with the accessories. These accessories are: phonetics, kalpa, grammar, metrics, astronomy, and etymology. ²⁵

Then the Thananga refers to the following evil scriptures: Science of portents indicating shower of blood or any unusual phenomenon boding calamity in the country, science of omens, science of spells and magic, low type of charm which causes Candalis to utter oracles, science of medicine, seventy-two arts, and science of architecture. These kalas may be classified as under:

1. Reading and writing which comprised writing and arithmetic, Poetry which included verse-making, the knowledge of Arya verses, riddles, Magadhi composition, Gatha composition, ballad-making, and Sloka-making.
2. Sculpture, Clay-modelling which included the knowledge of clays, Architecture, which comprised the science of building, measurement of camps, and cities and Music which comprised dancing, singing, instrumental music, vocal music, drum music, and timing in music.
3. Gambling, sports and indoor games which comprised gambling, playing dice, chess playing, making dolls and figures etc. Moved by pulling strings, a game of whirligigs and nalikakheda (a kind of dice).
4. Personal hygiene, toilet and food. They constituted the rules of food, drink, dress, toilet, and bed, knowledge of wearing ornaments of silver, gold, and other ornaments, preparation of powders, and means of improving the complexion of damsels, preparing ornamental designs from leaves, decorating the temple.
5. Knowledge of various marks and signs such as distinguishing marks of men, women, horses, elephants, kind, cocks, umbrellas, slaves, swords, gems and kakim jewel.
6. The science of omens, which comprised the knowledge of notes of birds, Astronomy, which included the movement and countermovement of stars, and Alchemy, which comprised the preparation of gold, silver, and reverting the killed metals to their natural state, and killing of the metals such as gold etc.
7. Art of fighting, which comprised fighting, wrestling, heavy fighting, menacing glances, fist-fighting, arm-fighting, clasped-fighting, knowledge of arrows, sword playing, archery, formation of array, counter array, wheel-formation, eagle-formation, and cart-formation. ²⁶

The method of instruction differed according to the nature of the subject. The first duty of the student was to memorize the particular Veda of his school, with special emphasis placed on correct pronunciation. In the study of such literary subjects as law, logic, rituals, and prosody, comprehension played a very important role. A third method was the use of parables, which were employed in the personal spiritual teaching relating to the Upanishads, or conclusion of the Vedas. In higher learning, such as in the teaching of Dharma-shastra (‘Righteousness Science’), the most popular and useful method was catechism—the pupil asking questions and the teacher discoursing at length on the topics referred to him. Memorization, however, played the greatest role. ²⁷

Teachers and the Pupils

In ancient India, the student was required to always obey his teacher except when he was ordered to commit a crime which could cause a loss to his caste. He could not contradict his teacher and always had to occupy a seat lower than him. Moreover, the student was required to embrace the feet of his teacher whenever he met him. All in all, the student was required to respect the teacher as much as a deity. ²⁸

Learned men received pupils for education, and all Aryan Hindus handed over their children at an early age to the charge of such teachers or Gurus. Every boy lived with his Guru for years together, served him in a menial capacity, begged alms for his support, tended his flocks, swept his house, and acquired from him from day to day, and from year to year, the sacred knowledge of the Vedas and of other branches of learning which were the cherished heritage of the ancient Hindus. After leaving the Guru, and rewarding him handsomely, some young men prosecuted their studies further in Parishads, answering to universities, where a number of teachers bestowed instruction in different subjects; and after the completion of their education, they returned to their homes, married, and settled down as householders. ²⁹

Teachers were respected in those early days. The rayapaseniya mentions three kinds of teachers: the teacher of arts (kalayariya), the teacher of crafts (sippayariya) and the teacher of religion (dhammayariya). Oil, flowers were offered to them, they were given a bath, dressed and decorated, and were invited for feasts and offered gifts and adequate wages that might reach their descendants. Similarly, religious teachers needed to be worshipped, fed and furnished with the necessary religious paraphernalia. It is stated that a teacher needed to be fully qualified to teach his pupils. He needed to answer the questions raised by his pupils without maintaining his relative superiority and he needed to avoid giving irrelevant answers.

The relations between the teacher and the student were cordial and the latter was to hold the former in deep reverence. In those days, a good pupil was one who always paid attention to the teachings of the preceptor, asked questions, heard the answers, grasped its meaning, reflected upon it, ascertained its validity, retained its meaning and practiced accordingly. Furthermore, a good pupil never disobeyed his teacher or behaved roughly towards him; he carried out the command of his teacher like a through-bred horse. If he perceived the teacher in an angry mood, he pacified the teacher by meekness, appeased him with folded hands and avowed not to do wrong again. It is stated that a pupil could not sit by the side of the teachers, nor before him, nor behind him, he could never ask questions when sitting on a stool or his bed, but had to rise from his seat and come near the teacher and ask him with folded hands.

There were bad pupils too. They got kicks (khaddaya) and blows (caveda) from their teachers. They were also beaten with sticks (vaha) and addressed with harsh words. Bad students were compared with bad bullocks who broke down through want of zeal. Such pupils, if sent on an errand, did not do what they were asked to do, but strolled about wherever they liked. Sometimes, the teachers were tired of such pupils, they left them to their fate and retired to the forest. Those students who were financially weak, were dealt rudely because the teachers knew that they would not gain any worldly benefits from their parents whereas the rich were served respectfully because they paid the teachers well. It was this behavior due to which many poor students were deprived of education.

Pupils were also compared to a mountain, an earthen pot, a sieve, a tilter, a royal swan, a buffalo, a ram, a mosquito, a leech, a cat, a pole-cat, a cow, a drum and an abhin, each item showing the distinctive qualifications and disqualifications of the student world. ³⁰

End of Studentship

The studentship was brought to a close by what has been termed the Samavartana (the returning home of the student), a ceremony which needed to be performed by the pupil. It included a number of acts signifying the end of the austerities imposed upon the condition of studentship. First, the Brahmachari ³¹ was confined in a room in the morning, lest his superior lustre puts to shame the sun who shines in the lustre borrowed of him. Coming out of the room at midday, he shaved his head and beard and cut off all marks of his studentship. Then followed the bath accompanied by the use of powder, perfumes, ground sandalwood, and the like to be presented by the friends and relations of the student, and then were also thrown into the water all the external signs of his brahmacharya such as the upper and lower garments, girdle, staff, skin. After the bath, he becomes a Snätaka wearing new garments, two ear-rings, and a perforated pellet of sandalwood overlaid with gold at its aperture--the gold which brings gain, superiority in battles and assemblies and he prays that he may be loved of all, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, Sudras, and Kings. Some of the Sutras distinguish three kinds of Snatakas.

1. He who performs the Samavartana ceremony after having finished the study of the Veda but before the time of his vows has expired, is a Vidyasnataka.
2. He who performs the Samavartana after his vows have expired but before he has finished the study of the Veda, is a Vrata-snataka.
3. He who performs the Samavartana after having finished both, is a Vidya-Vrata-Snataka.

Of these the last ranks foremost; the two others are equal to each other. Thus, a Snataka (one who has bathed) or a Samavritta (one who has returned home) would be, according to modern ideas, one who had taken his degree. A homa or sacrifice was performed with a prayer that the Snataka will have any number of pupils to teach in his turn. Then he, donned in his new robes, was to pay a visit to the local learned assembly in a chariot or on an elephant to be introduced to them as a full-fledged scholar by his teacher. A Snataka, however, was permitted to return to his teacher and live with him for purposes of further study for a period not exceeding four months. ³²

Women’s Education

In Vedic times, some elite women were initiated into Vedic learning, learned Sanskrit and studied Vedic rituals and lore. As initiates and advanced students of scripture, some even became teachers (panditas). But women gradually lost access to Vedic education, because brahmanical specialization took it out of the home and into ‘boarding schools’ – which caused parents to worry about maintaining the virginity of their daughters. Gradually, marriage replaced upanayana as a rite of passage for girls. Many scriptures forbade women even to chant Vedic mantras. This made them like sudras who were without Vedic learning (avaidika). As with most things Hindu, this was not universally true. Sects such as the Tantrikas ³³ and SriVaisnavas ³⁴ continued to educate girls, courtesans and devadasis, moreover, had training in temple and court performance traditions. ³⁵

Higher education was not common among normal women, however the daughters of the kings, nobles and the Ganikas were highly educated and had their intelligence trained and sharpened by the sastras. Girls were also taught subsidiary sciences along the Kamasutra (book of sexuality, eroticism and sensual pleasures). ³⁶

According to the ancient Indians, this knowledge of Kamasutra and its subsidiaries was extremely useful for all types of women. They believed that this made the women independent and in the absence of her husband, she would be able to earn something and survive, even in foreign areas. ³⁷

The ladies at royal courts played intellectual games involving Sanskrit and Prakrit. All this would not have been possible without education. The devadasis who served in the temples were often of noble birth and received a wide-ranging education in literature and the arts; several are known to have become wives or consorts of kings. ³⁸

Attainments of Lady Scholars

The attainments of lady scholars, who remained unmarried for a longer time, were naturally wider and more varied. In the Vedic age, they used to acquire thorough mastery in the Vedic literature and even compose poems, some of which have been honored by their inclusion in the sacred canon. When the Vedic lore and sacrifices became complex, a new branch of study, called Mimansa, came to be developed in their connection. Though this was a subject, drier than mathematics, lady scholars took keen interest in it. Kasakritsnin had composed a work on Mimansa called Kasakritsni after him; lady students who used to specialize in it, were known as Kasakritsna. If lady specialists in a technical science like Mimansa were so numerous as to necessitate the coining of a new special term to denote them, it can be reasonably concluded that the number of women who used to receive general literary and cultural education must have been fairly large. When in the course of time the study of philosophy became popular in the Upanishadic age, women began to take keen interest in that subject also, such was the case with Yajnavalkya’s wife Maitreyi; she was more interested in studying deeper problems of philosophy than in wearing costly jewels and apparels. In the philosophical tournament held during the sacrificial session performed under the auspices of king Janaka, it is interesting to note that the subtlest philosophical question was asked by the lady philosopher Gargi Vachaknavi. The question was so subtle and esoteric in character, that Yajnavalkya refused to discuss it in public. The keen reasoning and subtle cross-examination of Yajnavalkya by Gargi shows that she was a dialectician and philosopher of a high order. Atreyi of the Uttara-Rama-Charit was another lady, who studied Vedanta under Valmiki and Agastya. Some lady scholars of the age like Sulabha, Vadava, Prathiteyi, Maitreyi, and Gargi seem to have made real contribution to the advancement of knowledge, and have enjoyed the rare privilege of being included among the galaxy of distinguished scholars, to whom a daily tribute of gratitude was given by a grateful posterity at the time of the daily prayer (Brahmayajna). ³⁹

Teachers of Ancient Indians

The records of history show that the teachers of ancient India were not merely composed of Brahmin teachers. Although the Brahmins were thought to be the ideal candidates for teachers but under certain circumstances, education was also sought from non-Brahmin teachers.

Brahmin Teachers

The Brahmin was considered as the ideal teacher, at least within the context of Vedic study: ‘But a Brahmin was authoritatively remembered as a teacher,’ i.e., prescribed in the smrti. While all male members of the three upper social orders (varna) shared the duties and privileges of study, sacrifice, and charitable giving, only the Brahmins were entitled to teach, receive gifts, and conduct sacrifices for others. ⁴⁰

Non-Brahmin Teachers

The teachers were recruited only and exclusively from the Brahman caste. Exceptions were, however, allowed to this rule. Baudhayana sutras permit study under a non-Brahmin teacher in times of distress. This is confirmed by Apastamba, who says that ‘in times of distress a Brāhmana may study under a Kshatriya or Vaiśya’ and also by Gautama. Such a non-Brahmin teacher was paid due honor by the Brahman student throughout the long period of his studentship. The student needed to walk behind him and obey him. The same injunction is also given by Manu: ‘he shall walk behind and serve such a teacher, as long as the instruction lasts.’ The supply of non-Brahmin teachers in the country was, of course, created by the system which freely admitted them to the Brahminical schools and made education compulsory for all. ⁴¹

Overall educationalists of ancient India attached a lot of importance to the formation of the character according to their belief system. The Vedas were regarded as revealed and therefore their preservation was of paramount importance. Orthodox thinkers like Manu declared that a person of a good character who had superficial knowledge of the Vedas, was to be preferred over a person who was impure in his life and habits but was well versed in all the three Vedas.

The second aim of the Education system was the development of Hindu personality. Many historians have asserted that ancient Hindu education suppressed personality and originality by prescribing a uniform course of education and by enforcing an iron discipline ⁴² to pollute the students’ mind and behavior.

The educational system of ancient India, did give some minor benefits to that society, but overall, failed to fulfill the basic needs of the society. A girl who was supposed to be trained morally, intellectually and religiously under the divine revelation was given the teachings about being a prostitute and a lover to satisfy the sexual needs of men while taking their desired benefits. The males, on the other hand, were being trained to maintain the cruel cast system. Moreover, some people were totally discarded from receiving any education at all. As a result, the ancient Indian society, despite their so called supreme educational institutions and intellectuals, consisted of immoral, unjust, and unethical citizens.

• ¹ The Vedas are a collection of hymns and other ancient religious texts written in India between about 1500 and 1000 B.C. (Ancient History Encyclopedia (Online Version): https://www.ancient.eu/The_Ve das/: Retrieved: 20-12-2018) their details are available in volume. 1 of this Encyclopedia.
• ² Annie Besant (1925), Indian Ideals in Education, Philosophy, Religion and Art, Calcutta University Press, Calcutta, India, Pg. 5-6.
• ³ Cybelle Shattuck (1999), Religions of the World: Hinduism, Routledge, London, U.K.., Pg. 32.
• ⁴ Jagdish Chandra Jain (1947), Live in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canons, Bombay New Book Company, Ltd., Bombay, India, Pg. 169.
• ⁵ Annie Besant (1925), Indian Ideals in Education, Philosophy, Religion and Art, Calcutta University Press, Calcutta, India, Pg. 8-9.
• ⁶ Paul Monroe (1917), A Brief Course in the History of Education, Macmillan & Co. Ltd., London, U.K.., Pg. 19-20.
• ⁷ D. D. Kosambi (1965), The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in a Historical Outline, Routledge, London, U.K.., Pg. 147.
• ⁸ Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Education in Ancient India, Brill, Boston, USA, Vol. 16, Pg. 198.
• ⁹ Paul Monroe (1917), A Brief Course in the History of Education, Macmillan & Co. Ltd., London, U.K.., Pg. 19-20.
• ¹⁰ A. S. Altekar (1944), Education in Ancient India, Nand Kishore & Bros., Benares, India, Pg. 103-104.
• ¹¹ D. G. Apte (1961), Universities in Ancient India, University of Baroda, Gujrat, India, Pg. 10-11.
• ¹² Nogendra Nath Mazumder (1916), A History of Education in Ancient India, Macmillan & Co. Ltd., London, U.K.., Pg. 69-71.
• ¹³ C. Kunhan Ranjha (1950), Some Aspects of Education in Ancient India, The Adyar Library, Madras, India, Pg. 27.
• ¹⁴ Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Education in Ancient India, Brill, Boston, USA, Vol. 16, Pg. 74.
• ¹⁵ Paul Fieldhouse (2017), Food, Feasts and Faith: An Encyclopedia of Food Culture in Religions, ABC-Clio, California, USA, Vol. 1, Pg. 448-449.
• ¹⁶ Encyclopedia Britannica (Online Version): https://www.britannica.com/topic/education/Education-in-classical-cultures: Retrieved: 18-12-2018
• ¹⁷ Nogendra Nath Mazumder (1916), A History of Education in Ancient India, Macmillan & Co. Ltd., London, U.K.., Pg. 66-67.
• ¹⁸ Encyclopedia Britannica (Online Version): https://www.britannica.com/topic/education/Education-in-classical-cultures: Retrieved: 18-12-2018
• ¹⁹ Nogendra Nath Mazumder (1916), A History of Education in Ancient India, Macmillan & Co. Ltd., London, U.K., Pg. 89-90.
• ²⁰ D. G. Apte (1961), Universities in Ancient India, University of Baroda, Gujrat, India, Pg. 10-11.
• ²¹ Jagdish Chandra Jain (1947), Live in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canons, Bombay New Book Company, Ltd., Bombay, India, Pg. 170-171.
• ²² C. Kunhan Ranjha (1950), Some Aspects of Education in Ancient India, The Adyar Library, Madras, India, Pg. 47.
• ²³ Jagdish Chandra Jain (1947), Live in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canons, Bombay New Book Company, Ltd., Bombay, India, Pg. 172.
• ²⁴ Satapatha Brahamana, XI-5-7-9: http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe44/sbe44031.htm: Retrieved: 17-12-2018
• ²⁵ C. Kunhan Ranjha (1950), Some Aspects of Education in Ancient India, The Adyar Library, Madras, India, Pg. 49.
• ²⁶ Jagdish Chandra Jain (1947), Live in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canons, Bombay New Book Company, Ltd., Bombay, India, Pg. 169-173.
• ²⁷ Encyclopedia Britannica (Online Version): https://www.britannica.com/topic/education/Education-in-classical-cultures: Retrieved: 18-12-2018
• ²⁸ Subhas Chandra Ghose (1989), Teacher – Student Relation and its impact on Student Unrest, Northern Book Center, Delhi, India, Pg. 21.
• ²⁹ Romesh Chunder Dutt (1904), Ancient India (2000 B.C.-800 A.D.): Epochs of Indian History, Longmans Green and Co. London, New York and Bombay, USA & India, Pg. 38-39.
• ³⁰ Jagdish Chandra Jain (1947), Live in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canons, Bombay New Book Company, Ltd., Bombay, India, Pg. 169-171.
• ³¹ Celibate, Sanskrit brahmacarin, from brahman prayer + cārin one who practices. (Meriam Webster Dictionary (Online Version): https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/brahmachari: Retrieved: 20-12-18), A student of the Vedas, especially one committed to brahmacharya. (Dictionary.com: https://www.dictionary.com/browse/br ahmachari: Retrieved: 20-12-2018)
• ³² Radha Kumud Mookerji (1989), Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsi Dass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi, India, Pg. 209-210.
• ³³ Tantrikas were the followers of the book called Tantras. (John Garett (1989), A Classical Dictionary of India, Atlantic Publishers & Distributers, Delhi, India, Pg. 56)
• ³⁴ Srivaisnavas or Shrivaishnavas are members of a Hindu sect, most numerous in South India, that pay allegiance to the god Vishnu and follow the teachings of the philosopher Ramanuja. (Encyclopedia Britannica (Online Version): https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shrivaishnava: Retrieved: 20-12-18)
• ³⁵ Denis Cush, Catherine Robinson & Michael York (2008), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Routledge, London, U.K.., Pg. 1016.
• ³⁶ Wendy Doniger (2007), Daedalus: Reading the Kamasutra: The Strange and the Familiar, The MIT Press, Massachusetts, USA, Vol. 136, No. 2, Pg. 66.
• ³⁷ H. Chakladar (1954), Social Life in Ancient India, Susil Gupta Limited, Delhi, India, Pg. 126-127.
• ³⁸ Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Education in Ancient India, Brill, Boston, USA, Vol. 16, Pg. 210.
• ³⁹ A.S Altekar (1944), Education in Ancient India, Benares Nand Kishore & Bros, Educational Publishers, Benares, India, Pg. 207-209.
• ⁴⁰ Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Education in Ancient India, Brill, Boston, USA, Vol. 16, Pg. 194.
• ⁴¹ Radha Kumud Mookerji (1989), Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsi Dass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi, India, Pg. 209.
• ⁴² A. S. Altekar (1933-34), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute: Ideals, Merits and Defects of Ancient Indian Educational System, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Maharashtra, India, Vol. 15, No. 3/4, Pg. 138-141.