Education System

The Egyptians were among the earliest people who developed the tools to exploit the common world and to record their false ideas in such an effective way which has their marks till date. They fashioned arithmetic and with it measured their fields and estimated yields of grain to come over the whole economic system of that time. They observed the heavens and learned to know the movements of some of the stars to rule on the sky. They studied human anatomy, and learned to deal with sickness and accidents to live as long as they could in this materialistic world. They recorded their ideas, ¹ and transmitted their filthy teaching to the rest of the world in a way that every new comer studies the profanity of their society and is attracted towards it without thinking about the flaws in it.

It is really hard to trace the details of the ancient Egyptian education system due to limited historical evidences but it is certain that there was a form of educational system throughout the known history of ancient Egypt. This system was implemented to educate children in various areas and was held in high regard. Common subjects were reading, writing, mathematics and so-called religious morals.

Education was necessary for the royal class of ancient Egypt since royal offices remained in the same family for years. Therefore, it was compulsory for the children of these families to be instructed in the required disciplines. Moreover, people of lower classes usually could not send their children to schools because of the limited number of schools, and these schools were typically reserved for children from royal and rich backgrounds.

The general term for education throughout pharaonic time was sb3yt, the basic meaning of which was ‘teaching’ with a derived connotation of ‘punishment’. Educators apparently used a cane on recalcitrant students. The standard term for ‘instruction’ and ‘teaching’ in both its written and oral form was also sby3t. ² It seems likely that in Egypt a few sons of prosperous commoners were able to attend fee-charging schools and, by learning to write, rise to become scribes or even administrators. ³

Various lines of reasoning suggest that in most periods not more than 1 per cent of the population was literate. If the population rose from one million (Old Kingdom) to 4.5 million (Graeco-Roman period), the numbers of literate would have been 10,000–50,000, but even the lower of these figures may be too high. The rate of literacy, the volume and range of written material, and the loquacity of texts tended to advance, but the increment was not steady. Literacy declined between the New Kingdom and the Graeco-Roman period, before rising in different circumstances.

Literacy was also necessary for the proper performance of ritual in major temples, which involved a lector priest, literally ‘he who carried the festal (papyrus) roll’. The archetypal magical practitioner was the lector priest. The position of the higher-ranking priests in the elite seems not to have been prominent in early periods—they were not then a professional class—but this changed later, and temples became repositories of written knowledge. For the Middle Kingdom, the high status of chief lector priests in literature may point to priestly involvement in it as an institution, but their prime role was as magicians. Many reputed authors of didactic texts were viziers (highest officials of state). This could be a true indicator of the focus on written culture, and the chief reading public for high culture was probably in these privileged areas. Findings of texts suggest that the learned had a general education and that interest in traditional texts went beyond the core elite, but probably included only a small proportion of the literate; a number in the hundreds would be enough to keep a tradition alive. A number of literary texts come from tombs, which implies that their owners kept them for edification or for their role in the next life and attests indirectly to interest in them in this life.

Central administration was one privileged area of literacy and religion was another. In these spheres one should expect both the greatest proliferation of documentary writing and the greatest interest in texts. The only large early body of documents comes from mortuary temples of 5th dynasty kings, and includes examples of minute record keeping that are paralleled in the Middle Kingdom pyramid town of Senwosret II. Both were religious foundations near the royal residence, were relatively wealthy and tightly run, and had the resources for and interest in elaborate documentation. It is uncertain whether such things were typical for the whole country; the bureaucratic grip was probably strongest near the center. ⁴

Schools

Egyptian culture and education were preserved and controlled chiefly by the priests, a powerful intellectual elite in the Egyptian theocracy who also served as the political bulwarks by preventing cultural diversity. The humanities as well as such practical subjects as science, medicine, mathematics, and geometry were in the hands of the priests, who taught in formal schools. Vocational skills relating to such fields as architecture, engineering, and sculpture were generally transmitted outside the context of formal schooling. ⁵ The first literary attestation of schools, in the sense of an architectural complex exclusively serving the needs of education, date from the first intermediate period and the early twelfth dynasty. Even from the New Kingdom we have only scanty references to schools.

The Egyptian word for school, ‘t-sb3yt’ literally meant room of instruction. It is still unknown whether students of different levels were taught simultaneously in a single class; the existence of several classes representing different levels of education was not supported by the evidence. Types of schools may have varied, both inside and outside the temple, but their curriculum certainly depended on the function that future scribes or priests were supposed to fulfill. ⁶

Reading and writing were central elements in the nursery curriculum, under the guidance of the scribe in the house of the royal children. By repeated copying of examples, this scribe taught his pupils to write in cursive script with pen and ink on papyrus. As they progressed, pupils moved on to the study of longer, classic texts, such as the Middle Kingdom Tale of Sinuhe and—a particular favorite—the work known as Kemit, ‘the compendium.’ Kemit was a model letter, used as a set text for scribal training, and it was intended to hone its readers’ morals as much as their writing skills. By emphasizing the advantages of literacy, it sought to perpetuate the elevated status enjoyed by the elite.

Ancient Egypt, like Dickensian England, believed wholeheartedly in the maxim ‘Spare the rod and spoil the child.’ As one New Kingdom proverb put it, ‘A boy’s ear is on his back: he hears when he is beaten.’ The discipline of the scribal school was meant to prepare its pupils for the rigors of government service. The harsh and uncompromising style of education accurately reflected the exercise of power in ancient Egypt. The royal court, despite its luxury, was no place for effete intellectuals. Ambition, determination, resilience, and manly vigor—these were the qualities prized by the government machine, and the nursery sought to drum them into its pupils.

Once the young princes and their schoolmates had mastered the Egyptian language, they were introduced to Babylonian cuneiform, the diplomatic lingua franca of the age. Egypt could no longer afford to luxuriate in its own sense of superiority. In a new era of internationalism, power politics demanded a knowledge of foreign languages and cultures. The curriculum also included mathematics and music, for an appreciation of singing and instrumental music, if not the ability to perform, went hand in hand with membership in polite society. Just as important, for the future king if not for his classmates, was a firm grasp of military strategy. ⁷

Instruction in class lasted for about four years and was followed by individual teaching on-the-job training. Apprentices were now credited the title ‘assistant’ and sometimes also that of scribe. During this stage of education, some students developed a rather familiar relationship with their masters as documented by some Ramessid private monuments mentioning and depicting former students as if they belonged to the student’s family. Cases are known where fathers and even grandfathers instructed their own sons.

Usually teaching was given by the master in the pupil’s presence but Deir el-Medina supplies evidence for another kind of contact. This was teaching by correspondence. As already mentioned, ‘instructions-by-letter’ imply silent study outside school. In addition to this, a student could have been expected to make copies, presumably of literary texts at home. After he had finished one or more chapters, these copies were sent to the master for correction.

There was no compulsory school attendance for all children and we cannot say if its place was sometimes taken by private tuitions alone. During the Old Kingdom, this system seems to have prevailed if indeed it was not the only form of instruction. It was comparable to the much later Roman model of individual education. ⁸

In the village, a school was usually organized by the local priest, or by a scribe who added to his income by teaching basic skills. Larger schools were most often a part of a state department’s offices, or attached to a temple, and—at the highest level—part of the palace.

The school of Amun at Karnak offered teaching in very advanced subjects, and its graduates were expected to attain the highest posts in the government. In addition to public schooling, some nobles also hired private tutors to teach their children. The main duty of the schoolteacher was to ensure the supply of future scribes. For this reason, teachers were drawn from the ranks of experienced scribes who had a gift for speaking and passing on knowledge to the young. Lessons took place in a formal schoolroom and, later, the teacher takes on apprentices in his office. ⁹

There was a military school for boys intended for the Army. The ‘Royal Stable for Education’ was its somewhat obscure name; and we read of a certain Beken Khonsu who, having been entered as a cadet when four years of age in such a school, became, at the age of sixteen years, ‘Captain in the Royal Stable for Education.’ ¹⁰

There were several other centers of learning as well, each being pre-eminent in a special subject. The great ecclesiastical college was at Khmunu (Hermopolis). Tahuti, the God of Wisdom, was very appropriately worshipped here, and assisted by the Goddess of ''Literature and the Library," was the patron and protector of all seekers after wisdom. Tahuti taught men the science of arithmetic and mensuration, pure mathematics; the laws of music, oratory and drawing botany; the ingenious art of painting in words and speaking to the eyes; a system of medicine, and a theological code. It seems, therefore, that this University was the seat of theoretic learning, while the applied sciences were more studied at Memphis and Heliopolis.

The Faculty of Medicine was a branch of the priesthood, and although the Egyptians boasted that they were the healthiest of all mortals, the profession seems to have flourished. If the youth displayed artistic talent, Memphis was his destination, to become a votary of the great God Ptah, he who created works of art. The most famous University of antiquity was at Heliopolis, the City of the Sun. As a seat of learning it was the most popular of all, and it was noted for the profound wisdom of the priesthood. They were called the mystery teachers of heaven who used to add several things from their own without any logical or divine proof. The High Priest was the Astronomer Royal; he wore over his robes the sacred leopard skin, spangled with stars. All his titles designated his high office, he who is great in regarding; he who sees the secret of heaven; and 'Privy Councilor of heaven.’ ¹¹ He used to quote the words of his formers to attract followers and used to amalgamate all his personal desires in the teachings which could not be identified by a layman. Due to his high status, he used to exploit the rights of public for his personal benefits. His language used to be scholastic but in reality, was nothing more than few well concocted words to trick the public. He ruled the public as a king of both their worlds.

Nursery

In ancient Egypt, growing up alongside the future king was a near certain passport to high office. To be a child of the nursery, one had to rub shoulders not only with the royal children, but also with the offspring of Egypt’s great and good, in an atmosphere of privilege and power. The country’s future leaders were trained from infancy for the responsibilities they would later assume, receiving an education that was practical and vocational rather than narrowly academic. There was also an overtly political dimension. In the New Kingdom, the inhabitants of the nursery—where children lived as well as learned—included the sons of foreign vassals, brought to court for indoctrination into the Egyptian way of life, in the hope that it would inculcate a lifelong loyalty to the pharaoh. The future Amenhotep II and his friends would therefore have come into contact with Nubian and Asiatic princes, which would have given them a much more cosmopolitan outlook than their forebears. Perhaps this explains why Egypt and Mittani, at war for decades, only finally concluded a peace treaty in the reign of Amenhotep II. As Egypt attempted to re-educate its neighbors, the neighbors in turn had an equally profound influence on the host country.

In the Eighteenth Dynasty, the most important royal nursery was at Gurob, a verdant place in the fertile Fayum depression. Here, kings since the dawn of history had built their pleasure palaces. The abundance of birdlife, attracted to the waters of Birket Qarun, made for excellent hunting, while the royal women who lived in the adjoining harem palace busied themselves with the manufacture of textiles, their raw materials supplied by the Fayum’s extensive flax fields. Gurob was hence a place of women and children, relaxation and laughter. Royal princesses and the daughters of the elite could expect to learn at their mothers’ feet the accomplishments expected of them: weaving, singing, dancing, perhaps a smattering of reading and writing. By contrast, a harsher discipline was enforced when it came to the education of princes and their male contemporaries. Nowhere was this more keenly felt than in the scribal school, for literacy was the key to power in ancient Egypt.

Subjects

Among the subjects of general knowledge covered by the scribal apprentices, at least from the New Kingdom onward, were the following epistolary formulas and letter-writing; grammar, orthography, and rhetoric; foreign languages; onomastics; geography; and mathematics and geometry. These are discussed in detail below.

Epistolary Formulas and Letter Writing

A letter normally consisted of three sections: the initial address, its content, and the final address, sometimes including a farewell to the addressee. The introduction contained certain polite formulas commending the recipient to the care of a god or gods. A composition from the early Middle Kingdom served as a model for letter writing.

Grammar, Orthography and Rhetoric

Schoolboy exercises display orthographic mistakes that can only be accounted for by the assumption that the apprentices were taught to write single words and even whole sentences but no single signs. The Egyptian term for ‘hieroglyphs’ may be taken as corroborative evidence for this feature of education since it literally means “god’s words”, not “god’s signs” even though there was the separate term for sign, image and picture representation.

Rhetoric was held in high esteem and is a constant topic in instructional literature. How the ‘rules of proper speech’ were taught remains unknown, but according to Ptahhotep, eloquence was not restricted to members of the elite. Even female slaves were sometimes credited with the gift of fine speech.

Foreign Languages

Expeditions, war and trade implied contact with neighboring countries at all times. Such relations necessitated mastery of foreign languages, such as Nuban and Libyan. In the New Kingdom, an ever-increasing number of loan words, especially Semitic can be seen rendered in the syllabic orthography of the Egyptian script.

Geography

The onomastica may be taken as evidence that scribes were supposed to know at least the most important place names of Egypt and its neighbors, as well as their locations. Officials who were involved in foreign affairs, trade, or military campaigns also needed such additional knowledge.

Mathematics and Geometry

Book keeping was one of a scribe’s primary occupations, so the four basic arithmetic operations formed another subject of his education. These calculations were supplemented by various problems of geometry, examples of which are found in mathematical manuscripts both in Hieratic and Demotic. ¹²

Moreover, writing was the foundation of their education, just as reading is the basis of ours. The daily task was generally of three pages, and often on the reverse found sums scribbled down, or delightful little drawings of animals. Arithmetic was taught in the modern way by games, which the children learn as a pleasure and amusement. They had to distribute apples and garlands, arranged pugilists and wrestlers as they paired together by lot or remain over. Apparently, they also practiced sums, and had object-lessons to develop domestic economy which was the central idea of their education rather than to civilize them. They adapted to their amusement, the numbers in common use, and in this way made more intelligible to their pupils for the arrangements and movements of armies to expedite towards their surroundings with the brutal attacks and planned butchery . . . and in the management of a household they made people more useful to themselves and more awake to satisfy their lavish desires which was the core concern of their whole worldly life.

Swimming, and the sacred songs and dances, completed the elementary education; but attention was paid to manners and morals, as well as to the mind and the body. Lessons were over at noon, and then the children rushed off, ‘shouting for joy.’ Discipline was enforced: ‘Spend no day in idleness, or thou wilt be flogged’ ¹³ was the main theme of their schooling.

Moral Education

An important part of the learning process involved memorizing proverbs and myths. These were intended to educate the pupils about their religious and social behavior. Rigid method and severe discipline were applied to achieve uniformity in cultural transmission, since deviation from the traditional pattern of thought was strictly prohibited. Drill and memorization were the typical methods employed. But, as noted, Egyptians also used a work-study method in the final phase of the training for scribes ¹⁴ so that the institution produced closed minded followers rather than open minded students.

Informal Versus Formal Education

In fact, they were among the country’s small but highly influential group of individuals who had a formal education. A majority of Egyptians received what was essentially an informal education at the hands of their parents and sometimes other adult relatives.

In most lower-class families, for instance, mothers began teaching their daughters how to cook and make clothes when they were very young. Usually this was as far as their education went, and with occasional exceptions young women never attended school or learned to read and write. Girls from different families learned to sew, too, but were also instructed in singing, dancing, and playing musical instruments to be valuable for their males. Moreover, at least some young women from wealthy homes became literate, as evidenced by a few surviving letters that appear to have been written by women. As for boys from poorer homes, the majority learned an occupation or trade from their fathers or became apprentices to another tradesman.

In addition to practical or occupational skills, the informal education an average boy or girl received included basic social skills and a sense of ‘so-called’ morality. Strouhal puts it, ‘parents familiarized their children with their ideas about the world with their religious outlook, with their ethical principles, and with correct behavior toward others and toward the supernatural beings in whom everyone believed.’

By contrast, the few who received formal education had a very real leg up on everyone else. First, literacy gave them a shot at jobs in the national government, which carried with them high pay and social status. Beyond this handful of special workers, the majority of literate individuals became scribes—masters of reading and writing—who formed a small but a separate class within society’s upper levels. Considering the importance of scribes, upper-class parents often urged their sons to join their ranks, hoping, as Rosalie David says, those young men would be able ‘to escape the toil associated with all other trades.’ Similarly, part of the advice a seasoned scribe offered young men aspiring to that vocation was to ‘set your mind to being a scribe, an excellent trade. You will walk unhindered on the road, and not become an ox to be handed over. You will be at the head of others.’

Exposure to Wisdom and Literature

When acting as teachers, scribes held classes in settings that ranged from the royal palace and religious temples to spare rooms in well-to-do homes that belonged to the parents of some of the students. The principal subjects taught were reading and writing. David points out, the students increased their chances of ‘advancement in life’ and of acquiring ‘the skills required in good leaders.’ Some historians have suggested that the strong emphasis teachers placed on honesty, justice, and fairness may have helped instill a positive moral outlook in many of the royal princes who eventually became pharaohs ¹⁵ but the reality seemed to be otherwise since most of the pharaohs were vicious and brutal rulers.

Egyptologists disagree on some of the details related to the education system of ancient Egypt, in particular, the age at which a child began school and whether or not children of all levels of society and both genders had access to a formal education or not ¹⁶ but it is quite clear that their education system was tailor made to produce an elite class which might help their kings to continue their cruel systems of governments. Education was used as a tool to spoil the mind of the young generation as it is done today by the pseudo intellectuals who change the facts and misguide the innocent people.

• ¹ Lionel Casson (1969), Ancient Egypt, Time life International, Amsterdam, Netherland, Pg. 141.
• ² Donald B. Redford (2001), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt: A-F, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K., Vol. 1, Pg. 439.
• ³ Bruce G. Trigger (1993), Early Civilizations: Ancient Egyptians in Context, the American University in Cairo Press, Cairo, Egypt, Pg. 61.
• ⁴ John Baines (2007), Visual and Written Culture in Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K., Pg. 49-51.
• ⁵ Encyclopedia Britannica (Online Version): https://www.britannica.com/topic/education/Education-in-the-earliest-civilizations#ref88924 : Retrieved: 06-11-2017
• ⁶ Donald B. Redford (2001), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt: A-F, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K., Vol. 1, Pg. 441.
• ⁷ Toby Wilkinson (2010), The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt, Random House, New York, USA, Pg. 176-177.
• ⁸ Donald B. Redford (2001), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt: A-F, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K., Vol. 1, Pg. 441-442.
• ⁹ Norman Bancroft Hunt (2009), Living in Ancient Egypt, Chelsea House Publishers, New York, USA, Pg. 48.
• ¹⁰ A. Bothwell Gosse (1915), The Civilization of Ancient Egyptians, T.C. & E.C. Jack Ltd., Edinburg, U.K., Pg. 15-16.
• ¹¹ Ibid, 18-19.
• ¹² Donald B. Redford (2001), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt: A-F, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K., Vol. 1, Pg. 439-440.
• ¹³ A. Bothwell Gosse (1915), The Civilization of Ancient Egyptians, T.C. & E.C. Jack (ltd.), Edinburg, U.K., 18-19.
• ¹⁴ Encyclopedia Britannica (Online Version):https://www.britannica.com/topic/education/Education-in-the-earliest-civilizations#ref88924 : Retrieved: 06-11-2017
• ¹⁵ Don Nardo (2015), Life in Ancient Egypt, Reference Point Press, Sandiego, California, USA, Pg. 54-55.
• ¹⁶ Patricia D. Netzley (2003), The Greenhaven Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Greenhaven Press, Sandiego, USA, Pg. 109.